In our special documentary, American Revolution: This is War! Bunker Hill and the Birth of the US Army, History Hit marks the 250th anniversary of the Siege of Boston (1775-1776), the foundational chapter in the eight-year fight for American Independence.

Join Dan Snow as he investigates the war’s first pitched battle – Bunker Hill – a bloody day that proved a hollow and costly British victory. Dan speaks to experts and explores this critical turning point, when skirmishes fought by colonial militia evolved into a fully-formed military campaign, as colonial forces laid siege on Boston for 11 months while the British Army tried desperately to maintain control of the town and its vital harbour. 

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Following the initial clashes at Lexington and Concord, British forces under General Thomas Gage found themselves effectively trapped in Boston. Thousands of unorganised yet determined colonial militiamen from across New England converged around the city, loosely containing the British. Boston, a vital port and a symbolic hotbed of revolutionary sentiment, became the focal point. The British desperately sought to maintain control of the town and its crucial harbor.

Bunker Hill

Recognising the strategic importance of the hills surrounding Boston, colonial leaders decided to fortify Breed’s Hill (mistakenly named “Bunker Hill” in historical accounts) on the Charlestown Peninsula. On the night of 16 June 1775, 1,000 militiamen, led by Colonel William Prescott, hastily constructed earthen fortifications. The next day, some 2,200 British regulars, under Major General William Howe, launched a frontal assault.

The battle itself was a bloody affair. Colonial defenders held their ground against two British charges, inflicting devastating casualties. The Redcoats, advancing in disciplined ranks, were met with lethal volleys. Only on the third assault, as the Americans critically ran out of ammunition, did the British finally overrun the fortifications.

Though a tactical victory for the British, who secured the hill, it was a Pyrrhic victory of immense proportions. Over 1,000 British soldiers were killed (226) or wounded (828) – nearly half their engaged force. As Dan says, “It was the highest casualty count they suffered in a single encounter in the entire Revolutionary War”. This was compared to approximately 450 colonial casualties, of whom 140 killed mostly during the final stand and retreat.

This staggering cost sent shockwaves through the British command, shattering any illusions of a swift and easy suppression of the rebellion. In fact, they were trapped.

The Battle of Bunker Hill

Image Credit: Public Domain

The birth of an army and the long siege

Bunker Hill proved a profound turning point. For the inexperienced colonial forces, it was a massive morale boost. They had stood toe-to-toe with the world’s most formidable army and inflicted crippling losses, demonstrating that patriotic dedication, even from untrained militia, could indeed challenge superior military might. News of the battle galvanised support across the 13 colonies, uniting them in a shared sense of purpose.

Crucially, Bunker Hill underscored the urgent need for a more organised and disciplined fighting force. Just days after the battle, the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, took a decisive step, formally establishing the Continental Army and, on 15 June 1775, appointed a Virginian, George Washington, as its Commander-in-Chief. Washington arrived in Cambridge in early July, facing the daunting task of transforming a collection of disparate militias into a cohesive fighting machine.

As military historian Jonathan Bratten explains to Dan, “Washington’s greatest genius through the entire war and at Bunker Hill was in keeping the army together, and in keeping an army in the field.” 

The Siege of Boston, which had begun informally, now intensified under Washington’s command. For the next 11 months, the Continental Army tightened its grip around the city. The British, confined to the peninsula, relied entirely on sea lines for supplies and reinforcements, making them vulnerable. Washington’s primary challenge was acquiring sufficient artillery to dislodge the entrenched British.

Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington

Image Credit: Picryl / Public Domain

The evacuation of Boston

The stalemate finally broke in early 1776, when, in a remarkable feat of logistics, Colonel Henry Knox successfully transported 59 cannons and other military supplies, captured from Fort Ticonderoga, over 300 miles of frozen terrain to Boston. On the night of 4 March Washington’s troops, under cover of darkness, fortified Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston Harbor. By dawn, the British awoke to find American cannons aimed directly at their positions and ships.

Recognising the untenable situation, and faced with the prospect of another costly assault, or the destruction of his fleet, General Howe ordered the withdrawal. On 17 March 1776 – a day now celebrated as Evacuation Day – over 11,000 British soldiers and hundreds of Loyalists boarded ships and sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.

The Siege of Boston, culminating in this strategic American victory, marked a profound shift. Bunker Hill had shown the colonists could fight; the subsequent siege demonstrated they could sustain a military campaign and achieve strategic objectives. The transformation from scattered militia skirmishes to a unified, professional army had begun, setting the stage for a prolonged war for independence.

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Read more about the American War of Independence

The event ignited a spirit of resistance among patriots throughout the 13 colonies, galvanising their fight for independence and eventually leading to the American revolution. What factors led to the Boston Tea Party, and why did it have such significance?

Seven Years War (1756-1763)

Although the Seven Years War (known in the US more commonly as the French and Indian War) encompassed multiple nations, the main belligerents were the British and French Empires. Seeking territorial expansion across several continents, both suffered significant casualties and accumulated substantial debt to fund their protracted struggle for territorial dominance.

The most pivotal battleground was in North America, which in 1756 had been geographically split between the empires of the British, French and Spanish. Through costly yet key victories at Quebec and Fort Niagara, the British emerged triumphant, annexing substantial swathes of previously held French territory in Canada and the Mid-West via the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

While this British victory had eradicated the immediate French and Native Indian threat (to some extent) to Britain’s 13 American colonies, military and naval expenditures had nearly doubled Britain’s national debt to £133 million. Consequently, the British thought it fair to impose higher taxes on its 13 colonies, having accrued the debt fighting wars on the colonists’ behalf.

The colonists disagreed, and this colonial taxation brought about heightened economic hardship in the US, underscoring the cultural disparities and ideological differences between the colonists and the British mainland.

Taxes and duties

In 1765, Britain introduced the Stamp Act, which imposed a tax on printed materials – i.e. virtually every piece of paper used in the colonies. Colonists vehemently protested the imposition of new direct taxation on these, compelling the British Government to eventually repeal the legislation a year later. However, further taxes followed.

The rallying cry of “No taxation without representation” became an iconic slogan, succinctly summarising colonial outrage and objection at being taxed against their will and without representation in Parliament.

The introduction of the Townshend Duties in 1767 and 1768 imposed new forms of indirect taxation on imported goods such as glass, paint, paper, lead and tea. The revenue raised helped pay the salaries of colonial governors and judges – perceived by the colonists as the British buying their loyalty.

The imposition of these duties sparked fury in the colonies, becoming the main root of spontaneous and violent opposition. Fuelled by propaganda leaflets and posters, such as those created by Paul Revere, colonists engaged in riots and organised merchant boycotts. Eventually, the colonial response was met with severe repression, with British troops sent to enforce the duties.

Boston Massacre (1770)

Just a year after the imposition of the Townshend Duties, the governor of Massachusetts urged the remaining 12 colonies to join his state and unite in opposition against the British, advocating for a boycott of their goods. Simultaneously, a riot erupted in Boston over the seizure of a ship, aptly named Liberty, involved in smuggling.

Despite these signs of unrest, there was no indication that the colonies were seriously contemplating fighting their British rulers until the infamous Boston massacre.

In March 1770, a group of redcoats guarding the Boston Customs House were accosted by a large crowd in the city, and bombarded with snowballs and more dangerous missiles as the cold and irate townspeople vented their anger toward the British soldiers. Amidst the chaos, they suddenly opened fire after a soldier was knocked down, resulting in the British shooting dead 5 colonists and injuring 6 others.

The Boston Massacre, 1770

Image Credit: Paul Revere, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

While the Boston Massacre is often portrayed as the inevitable start of a revolution, it initially prompted the British government to retract the Townshend Duties, except the tea tax, briefly suggesting that the crisis had abated. However, radicals such as Samuel Adams and Thomas Jefferson sustained the simmering resentment, keeping the revolutionary fervour alive.

What happened at The Boston Tea Party?

The British government failed to make further political concessions, missing the chance to avert rebellion. Instead, increasing widespread agitation by organised groups became widespread. In 1772, a British ship enforcing unpopular trade regulations was set ablaze by enraged patriots, and Samuel Adams initiated the creation of Committees of Correspondence – a network of rebels across all 13 colonies. 

However, it was in December 1773 when the most iconic and blatant demonstration of anger and resistance took place.

In May 1773, the British parliament had passed the Tea Act, which permitted the British East India Company to sell tea to the colonies duty-free, and much cheaper than other tea companies, yet still tax the tea once it reached colonial ports. These rising duties and perceived assault on liberties exacerbated tensions.

In November and December that same year, the first shipments of tea arrived in Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Charleston. While most governors turned the ships around or unloaded the tea into a holding warehouse to deescalate tensions, Thomas Hutchinson, the Governor of Massachusetts, refused to allow the ships to return to Britain, demanding the tea be unloaded and sold with the duties collected.

“The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor”, lithograph depicting the 1773 Boston Tea Party

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Nathaniel Currier, 1896 / Public Domain

Subsequently, after a meeting of the Sons of Liberty network on the evening of 16 December 1773, a group of around 100 colonists, led by Samuel Adams, boarded the East India Company‘s 3 trade ships (the Dartmouth, Eleanor, and the Beaver), that were docked at Griffin’s Wharf in Boston’s harbour, and poured 342 chests of British tea that belonged to the East India Company (weighing 46 tonnes and worth close to $1,700,000 in today’s currency) into the sea.

News of the dramatic yet largely peaceful incident spread quickly, and while in sympathy with the colonists, some prominent figures thought it wrong; George Washington believed private property was sacrosanct, and Benjamin Franklin insisted the British East India Company be reimbursed.

(The act itself, now famously termed the ‘Boston Tea Party’, wasn’t immediately known as such. The term was first used in print around 1826, but it took until the 1830s until it became a common way of describing the event – perhaps in a satirical manner, or to downplay any associations of violence.)

Consequences

Rather than appease the rebels, Britain’s parliament responded with a series of restrictive Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) on Massachusetts in early 1774, aimed at punishing Massachusetts. These measures – notably the Boston Port Act (which effectively shut down Boston’s port to all trade until the East India Company was reimbursed for the tea thrown in the harbour) – intensified colonial unity and led to the formation of the First Continental Congress in September 1774.

Here, delegates including George Washington, Samuel Adams and John Adams discussed countering Britain’s aggression, and how they could coordinate resistance against it. In the ensuing ‘Sussex Resolves’, citizens were ordered not to obey the ‘Intolerable Acts’, to boycott imported goods from Britain, and to raise a militia.

In April 1775 the first shots of the American War of Independence were fired as British troops clashed with militia men at the twin battles of Lexington and Concord. British reinforcements landed in Massachusetts and defeated the rebels at Bunker Hill in June – the first major battle. After the British withdrew into Boston, they were besieged by an army commanded by General, and future president, George Washington.

On 26 October 1775 King George III declared the American colonies to be in a state of rebellion, authorising the use of force against the rebels for the first time.

Declaration of Independence, painted by John Trumbull.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

By 4 July 1776, the Second Continental Congress had adopted the Declaration of Independence, proclaiming the separation of 13 American British colonies from Britain. This enabled the colonists to solidify an official alliance with France, and obtain French assistance, paving the way for their future victory.

Born in 1732 to Augustine and Mary Washington, he began life at his father’s plantation, Pope’s Creek in Virginia. George Washington was therefore also a land and slave owner, and his legacy, which has come to symbolise liberty and robust character, is not a simple one.

Washington died in 1799 from a throat infection, having survived tuberculosis, smallpox and at least 4 very near misses during battle in which his clothing was pierced by bullets but he remained otherwise unharmed.

Here are 10 facts about George Washington.

1. He was largely self-educated

George Washington’s father died in 1743 leaving the family without much money. Aged 11, Washington had not had the same chance his brothers had to study abroad in England, and instead left education at 15 to become a surveyor.

Despite his formal education ending prematurely, Washington pursued knowledge throughout his life. He avidly read about being a soldier, farmer and president; he corresponded with authors and friends in America and Europe; and he exchanged ideas about the economic, social and political revolutions of his day.

2. He owned enslaved people

Although not left with much money, Washington inherited 10 enslaved people upon his father’s death. During his lifetime Washington would buy, rent and control some 557 enslaved people.

His attitude toward slavery did gradually change. Yet although supporting abolition in theory, it was only in Washington’s will that he instructed that the enslaved individuals he owned were to be freed after his wife had died.

On 1 January 1801, a year before her death, Martha Washington fulfilled Washington’s wish early and freed 123 people.

Portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

3. His bold actions provoked a world war

In the mid 18th century, Britain and France battled it out for territory in North America. Virginia sided with the British and as a young Virginian militia-man, Washington was sent to help hold the Ohio River Valley.

Indigenous allies warned Washington of a French encampment just a few miles away from his location and, taking a force of 40 men, Washington led an attack on the unsuspecting French. The skirmish lasted 15 minutes, ending with 11 dead (10 French, one Virginian). Unfortunately for Washington, minor French noble Joseph Coulon de Villiers, Sieur de Jumonville, was killed. The French claimed Jumonville was on a diplomatic mission and labelled Washington an assassin.

Fighting between the French and British escalated into the French and Indian War, soon reaching across the Atlantic to pull the rest of the European powers into the Seven Years’ War.

4. He wore (very uncomfortable) dentures

Washington destroyed his teeth by using them to crack walnut shells. He therefore had to wear dentures, made from human teeth, pulled from the mouths of the poor and his enslaved workers, as well as ivory, cow teeth and lead. A little spring inside the dentures helped them open and close.

However, unsurprisingly, the fake teeth caused him a lot of discomfort. Washington rarely smiled and his breakfast of hoe cakes was cut into small pieces to make it easier to eat.

‘Washington Crossing the Delaware’ Emanuel Leutze (1851)

Image Credit: Emanuel Leutze, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

5. He had no biological children

Explanations for why the Washingtons could not conceive include adolescent cases of smallpox, tuberculosis and measles. Regardless, George and Martha Washington had two children – John and Martha – born of Martha’s first marriage to Daniel Parke Custis, who Washington adored.

6. George Washington was the first person to sign the United States Constitution

In 1787, Washington attended a convention in Philadelphia to recommend improvements to the Confederation. He was unanimously voted to preside over the Constitutional Convention, a responsibility lasting 4 months.

During the debate, Washington reportedly spoke very little, although this did not mean his passion for creating a strong government was lacking. When the Constitution had been finalised, as the president of the convention, Washington had the privilege of being first to sign his name against the document.

7. He saved the American Revolution in battle, twice

By December 1776, after a series of humiliating defeats, the fate of the Continental Army and patriot cause hung in the balance. General Washington made a bold counterstrike by crossing of the frozen Delaware River on Christmas Day, leading to 3 victories that bolstered American morale.

Once again, with the Revolution on the brink of defeat in early 1781, Washington led a daring march south to surround Lord Cornwallis’ British army at Yorktown. Washington’s victory at Yorktown in October 1781 proved to be the decisive battle of the war.

8. He was unanimously elected President of the United States, twice

After 8 years at war, Washington was quite content to head back to Mount Vernon and tend to his crops. Yet Washington’s leadership during the American Revolution and Constitutional Convention, along with his reliable character and respect for power, made him the ideal presidential candidate. Even his lack of biological children comforted those worrying about the creation of an American monarchy.

Washington won the electors of all 10 states during the first election in 1789, and in 1792, Washington received all 132 electoral votes, winning each of the 15 states. Today, he remains the only US President to have a state named for him.

9. He was a keen farmer

Washington’s home, Mount Vernon, was a prosperous farming estate of some 8,000 acres. The property boasted 5 individual farms growing crops such as wheat and corn, had fruit orchards, a fishery and whisky distillery. Washington also became known for his breeding of American mules after being gifted a prize donkey by the Spanish King.

Washington’s interest in farming innovation at Mount Vernon was reflected during his presidency when he signed the patent for a new automated mill technology.

‘General George Washington Resigning His Commission’ by John Trumbull

Image Credit: John Trumbull, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

10. He supported westward expansion

One of the richest presidents in American history, Washington owned more than 50,000 acres of land across western Virginia, what is now West Virginia, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Ohio. At the centre of his vision for an ever-expanding and ever-connected United States, was the Potomac River.

It was no mistake that Washington built the United States’ new capitol along the Potomac. The river connected the interior territories of Ohio to the Atlantic trading ports, signalling the United States’ growth into the powerful and rich nation it is today.

History of The Crazy Horse Memorial

One of the most iconic Native American warriors, ‘Crazy Horse’ – Tasunke Witco – is famous for his role in fighting the US federal government as part of the Sioux resistance to the encroachment on the northern Great Plains by white American settlers. Crazy Horse’s fighting skills and participation in several famous battles such as the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876 earned him great respect from both his enemies and his own people.

In 1933, a Ponca chief, Standing Bear, learned that a monument was due to be constructed at Fort Robinson, Nebraska to honour his maternal cousin, Crazy Horse. Standing Bear wrote to James Cook who was steering the planned project and explained that he and many fellow Lakota leaders had formed the Crazy Horse Memorial Association and were instead promoting a carving of Crazy Horse in the sacred Black Hills – the only place they thought was appropriate for such a memorial.

Standing Bear was determined to honour his people in the Black Hills, and stated that there needed to be a Native American memorial in response to nearby Mount Rushmore equally as large in scope and vision. Eventually Standing Bear found sculptor Korczak Ziółkowski (who had also worked on Mount Rushmore). Work started over 70 years ago, in 1948 and is still in progress.

The likeness created of Crazy Horse was developed by descriptions from survivors of the Battle of Little Bighorn and other contemporaries of Crazy Horse. At the dedication ceremony, Standing Bear proclaimed that the memorial would serve to create cross-cultural understanding and help mend relations between Native and non-Native Americans.

The Crazy Horse Memorial today

The Crazy Horse Memorial will be the largest sculpture in the world when it is finally complete. At over 171 metres high it is also considered the ‘Eighth Wonder of the World’ in progress. If the president’s heads at Mount Rushmore were all stacked on top of each other, by comparison, they’d reach just over halfway on Crazy Horse!

As well as in tribute to Crazy Horse, the memorial is also designed to honour the values Native Americans stood for. However, the memorial has caused some controversy and friction within the Native American community due to the difference between the Crazy Horse project now and how it was originally envisioned.

The next phase of progress (5-10 years) includes carving Crazy Horse’s left hand and forearm, right shoulder, hairline, and part of his horse’s mane and head.

Getting to The Crazy Horse Memorial

Situated in the Black Hills of southwestern South Dakota, the entrance to the memorial is found along US Highway 16/385, 9 miles south of Hill City and 4 miles north of Custer. The memorial is 17 miles southwest of Mount Rushmore National Memorial and open all year round.

Crazy Horse’s fighting skills and participation in several famous battles earned him great respect from both his enemies and his own people. In September 1877, four months after surrendering to US troops, Crazy Horse was fatally wounded by a military guard while allegedly resisting imprisonment at Camp Robinson in present-day Nebraska.

Here are 10 facts about this fearless warrior.

1. He wasn’t always called Crazy Horse

Crazy Horse was born a member of the Oglala Lakota near present-day Rapid City in the Black Hills of South Dakota, c. 1840. He had a lighter complexion and hair than others, and very curly hair. As boys weren’t traditionally permanently named until they had an experience earning them a name, he was initially called ‘Curly’.

Following his bravery in a battle with Arapaho warriors in 1858, he was given his father’s name ‘Crazy Horse’, who then took on a new name, Waglúla (Worm) for himself.

Four Lakota women standing, three holding infants in cradleboards, and a Lakota man on horseback, in front of a tipi, probably on or near Pine Ridge Reservation. 1891

Image Credit: US Library of Congress

2. His first battle experience was due to a loose cow

In 1854, a loose cow wandered into a Lakota camp. It was killed, butchered and the meat shared among the camp. Shortly after, Lieutenant Grattan and his troops arrived to arrest whoever had stolen the cow, eventually killing Conquering Bear, the Lakota’s chief. In response, the Lakota killed all 30 US soldiers. The ‘Grattan massacre’ became the opening engagement of the First Sioux War.

Crazy Horse witnessed the events, furthering his distrust of white people.

3. He followed instructions from a vision

An important rite of passage for Lakota warriors was a Vision Quest – the Hanbleceya – designed to provide guidance for a life path. In 1854, Crazy Horse rode alone into the prairies for several days without food or water to undertake his quest.

He had a vision of a simply-clothed warrior on horseback who rode out of a lake and directed him to present himself in the same way, with only one feather in his hair. The warrior said he was to toss dust over his horse before battle and place a small brown stone behind his ear. Bullets and arrows flew around the warrior as he charged forward, but neither he or his horse were hit.

A thunderstorm started, and after the warrior broke free from those holding him back, he was struck by lightning, which left a lightning symbol on his cheek and white marks on his body. The warrior directed Crazy Horse never to take any scalps or war trophies, and he would thus not be harmed in battle.

Crazy Horse’s father interpreted the vision, stating that the warrior was Crazy Horse and that the lightning bolt and marks were to become his war paint. It is said that Crazy Horse followed the instructions in the vision until his death. The vision proved relatively prophetic – Crazy Horse was never injured in ensuing wars with only one mild exception.

Small group of Lakota skinning cattle–probably on or near Pine Ridge Reservation. Between 1887 and 1892

Image Credit: US Library of Congress

4. His first love was a married woman

Crazy Horse first met Black Buffalo Woman in 1857, but while he was away on a raid, she married a man named No Water. Crazy Horse continued to pursue her, eventually eloping with her on a buffalo hunt while No Water was with a hunting party in 1868.

Lakota custom allowed a woman to divorce her husband by moving in with relatives or another man. Whilst compensation was required, the rejected husband was expected to accept his wife’s decision. When No Water returned, he tracked them down and shot at Crazy Horse. The pistol was knocked by Crazy Horse’s cousin, deflecting the bullet into Crazy Horses’s upper jaw.

The two came to a truce after intervention by elders; Crazy Horse insisted that Black Buffalo Woman shouldn’t be punished for fleeing, and he received horses from No Water in compensation for his injury. Black Buffalo Woman later had her fourth child, a light-skinned baby girl, suspected of being the result of her night with Crazy Horse.

Soon after, Crazy Horse went on to marry a woman named Black Shawl who’d been sent to help him heal. After she died of tuberculosis, he later married a half-Cheyenne, half-French woman named Nellie Larrabee.

5. He played an important role as a decoy

After gold was discovered along the Bozeman Trail in Montana in 1866, General Sherman built a number of forts in Sioux territory to protect travellers. On 21 December 1866, Crazy Horse and a handful of other warriors lured a detachment of American soldiers under Captain Fetterman’s command into an ambush, killing all 81.

The ‘Fetterman Fight’ was the worst military disaster ever suffered by the US Army on the Great Plains.

A 1867 drawing of the Fetterman Fight

Image Credit: Harper's Weekly, v. 11, no. 534 (1867 March 23), p. 180., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

6. He played a vital role in the Battle of Little Bighorn

Gold was discovered in the Black Hills in 1874. After a number of Native American tribes missed a federal deadline to move to reservations (to enable gold prospectors on Native American lands to flourish, violating treaties on the Sioux’s territorial rights), General Custer and his 7th US Cavalry battalion were dispatched to confront them.

General Crook and his men attempted to approach Sitting Bull’s encampment at Little Bighorn. However, Crazy Horse joined Sitting Bull, and led 1,500 Lakota and Cheyenne warriors in a surprise attack on 18 June 1876 (the Battle of Rosebud), forcing Crook to withdraw. This deprived George Custer’s 7th Cavalry of much-needed reinforcements.

One week later, on 25 June 1876, Crazy Horse helped defeat the 7th Cavalry in the Battle of Little Bighorn – ‘Custer’s Last Stand’. Custer had entered the battle ignoring the advice of his Native guides. By the battle’s end, Custer, 9 officers, and 280 of his men were all dead, with 32 Indians killed. Crazy Horse was noted for his bravery in the battle.

7. He and the Lakota were starved into surrender

Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the US Government sent scouts to round-up any Northern Plains tribes who resisted, forcing many Native Americans to move across the country. They were followed by soldiers, and ultimately forced to surrender through starvation or exposure.

The harsh winter decimated the Sioux. Sensing their struggle, Colonel Miles tried to strike a deal with Crazy Horse, promising to help the Sioux and treat them fairly. After being shot at when they went to discuss the deal, Crazy Horse and his emissaries fled. As winter went on, buffalo herds were deliberately decimated. Crazy Horse negotiated with Lieutenant Philo Clark, who offered the starving Sioux their own reservation if they surrendered, which Crazy Horse agreed to. They were confined to Fort Robinson in Nebraska.

8. His death may have been a consequence of a mistranslation

During negotiations, Crazy Horse experienced trouble both from the army wanted his help with other native groups, and his own people, fearing he was getting too friendly with their enemy. Negotiations broke down, with eyewitnesses blaming a translator who incorrectly translated that Crazy Horse had promised he wouldn’t stop fighting until all white men were killed. (Other reports say Crazy Horse was arrested after leaving the reservation without permission when his wife became ill).

Crazy Horse was escorted by soldiers towards a cell. Realising what was happening, a scuffle broke out – Crazy Horse drew his knife, but his friend, Little Big Man, tried to restrain him. An infantry guard then lunged with a bayonet mortally wounding Crazy Horse, who died shortly after, around midnight on 5  September 1877, aged 35.

9. He was never photographed

Crazy Horse refused to have his picture or likeness taken, as he assumed that by taking a picture a part of his soul would be taken, shortening his life.

10. A memorial to Crazy Horse is being carved out of a mountainside

Crazy Horse is commemorated by an as-yet incomplete memorial carved out of a mountainside in the Black Hills of South Dakota. The Crazy Horse Memorial was started in 1948 by sculptor Korczak Ziółkowski (who also worked on Mount Rushmore), and will be the largest sculpture in the world when complete at over 171 metres high.

The likeness created was developed by descriptions from survivors of the Battle of Little Bighorn and other contemporaries of Crazy Horse. The memorial is also designed to honour the values Native Americans stood for.

A competent astronomer, his publications challenged the idea that African-Americans were mentally inferior to their white counterparts, with Banneker even writing directly to US Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson on the discussion of racial inequality.

Here are 10 facts about this unsung hero of early America:

1. He was born in Maryland in 1731

Benjamin Banneker was born on November 9 1731 in Baltimore County, Maryland. Most reports state that his mother was Mary Banneky, a free black woman, and his father Robert, a freed slave from Guinea, and the family grew up on a 100-acre tobacco farm which Banneker inherited upon his father’s death.

Despite the deeply ingrained racism and commonplace slavery prevalent in American society, the Bannekers appear to have enjoyed some autonomy in their everyday lives.

2. He is thought to have been largely self-taught

Though little is known about his early life, it is recorded that Banneker’s parents sent him to a small Quaker school as a child where he learnt to read, write and perform arithmetic. His schooling is then presumed to have ended when he was old enough to help on his family’s farm, though he notably continued to learn through borrowed books and manuscripts.

Benjamin Banneker depicted on a 1943 mural by Maxine Seelbinder in the Recorder of Deeds Building in Washington, D.C. (2010)

Image Credit: Carol M. Highsmith, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

3. At 21 he crafted a wooden clock that kept perfect time

After studying pocket watches to master their mechanics, Banneker gained the admiration of his local community when he crafted a wooden clock that kept perfect time.

With clocks an uncommon occurrence in rural 18th century Maryland, it is reported that many bemused visitors arrived at Banneker’s farm to admire his construction.

4. He struck up a friendship with a family of Quakers

In 1772, brothers Andrew, John and Joseph Ellicott purchased land near Banneker’s farm to construct a host of gristmills, which would later grow into the village of Ellicott’s Mills.

A Quaker family, the Ellicotts held progressive views on racial equality and Banneker soon became well acquainted with them. Likely bonding over their shared intellectual pursuits, Andrew’s son George loaned Banneker books and equipment to begin a more formal study of astronomy, and the following year he completed his first calculation of a solar eclipse.

5. He assisted a project in establishing the borders of the District of Colombia

In 1791, Thomas Jefferson asked surveyor Major Andrew Ellicott, the son of Joseph Ellicott, to survey the land intended to contain a new federal district. Ellicott hired Banneker to assist in the initial survey of the district’s boundaries.

Some biographers state that Banneker’s role in this was to make astronomical observations and calculations to establish base points, and to maintain a clock used to relate locations on the ground to the positions of the stars at specific times.

The territory that came from this survey became the District of Columbia and later Washington D.C., the federal capital district of the United States.

Library of Congress 1835 map of the District of Columbia showing Washington City in its center, Georgetown to the west of the city, and the town of Alexandria in the District’s south corner

Image Credit: Thomas Gamaliel Bradford, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

6. He used his knowledge of astronomy to write almanacs

Banneker continued making astronomical calculations to predict eclipses and planetary conjunctions, which were to be included in almanacs, books containing a calendar of the year and recorded various astronomical phenomena.

Though he had struggled to have his work published previously, he was aided by Andrew Ellicott in forwarding it to leading figures in the world of astronomy and publishing. The work was deemed worthy of publication, though not without comment on Banneker’s race and his ability to compute such calculations.

Banneker reportedly responded:

I am annoyed to find that the subject of my race is so much stressed. The work is either correct or it is not. In this case, I believe it to be perfect.

Despite this, Banneker’s work was published annually from 1792-97 by white northern abolitionists, with the manuscripts’ introductions declaring proof of the intelligence of not only Banneker, but wider black community.

7. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson on slavery and racial equality

A champion of racial equality, on 19 August 1791 Banneker sent a handwritten copy of his first 48-page almanac to Thomas Jefferson, alongside a 1,400-word letter challenging Jefferson’s stance on the inferiority of black people and questioning his commitment to true liberty.

In it he stated:

…however variable we may be in Society or religion, however diversified in situation or colour, we are all of the same family, and stand in the same relation to him [God].

Though Jefferson responded politely, he did little to help the issue in practical terms, and in later years disparaged Banneker in his private letters.

8. Banneker died in 1806 aged 74

On 9 October 1806, Banneker died in his log cabin in present-day Oella, Maryland, after selling much of his home to his Ellicott neighbours and others in the area.

He never married and left behind no children, suffering alcoholism later in life that may have hastened his death.

9. A fire destroyed many of his personal papers and artefacts

On the day of his funeral, a fire ripped through his log cabin, destroying many of his belongings and papers.

Those in possession of his remaining manuscripts came forward to donate them to various historical societies, including the original letters between himself and Jefferson.

Woodcut portrait of Benjamin Bannaker (Banneker) in title page of a Baltimore edition of his 1795 ‘Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Almanac’

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1987, his journal was donated by a member of the Ellicott family, who had also held onto a number of his personal items. Many of these were eventually sold and are currently on display in the Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum in Oella.

10. A substantial mythology later grew up around him

In the years following his death several urban legends began to grow up around Banneker’s life and legacy.

These included over-exaggerating his role in laying the boundary markers of the District of Colombia and claims that both his wooden clock and his almanac were the first built in America.

Despite these unfounded claims, Banneker’s legacy is a significant one, holding space as an impressive and interesting figure amongst the prejudiced landscape of the early United States of America.

The British created a base at Yorktown

Prior to 1781, Virginia had witnessed little fighting as most operations had taken place either in the far north or further south. However, earlier that year, British forces had arrived in and raided Chesapeake, and under Brigadier General Benedict Arnold and Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis, created a fortified base at the deep-water port of Yorktown.

Meanwhile, French Admiral Francois Joseph Paul, Marquis de Grasse Tilly arrived in the West Indies with a French fleet in April 1781 under the orders that he sail north and assist the French and American armies. When deciding whether to head for New York City or Chesapeake Bay, he chose the latter since it had a shorter sailing distance and was more navigable than the New York harbour.

Lieutenant général de Grasse, painted by Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse

Image Credit: Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The English failed to take advantage of favourable winds

On 5 September 1781, a British fleet commanded by Rear Admiral Graves engaged a French fleet under Rear Admiral Paul, the Comte de Grasse at the Battle of the Chesapeake. When a French fleet left the West Indies and another under Admiral de Barras sailed from Rhode Island, Graves guessed that they were heading for Chesapeake Bay to blockade Yorktown. He left New Jersey with a fleet of 19 ships to try and keep the mouths of the rivers York and James open.

By the time Graves arrived at Chesapeake Bay, de Grasse was already blockading access with 24 ships. The fleets saw each other just after 9am and spent hours trying to manoeuvre themselves into the best position for a fight. The wind favoured the English, but confused commands, which were the subject of bitter arguments and an official inquiry in the aftermath, meant they failed to drive the advantage home.

The French were tactically more sophisticated

The French tactic of firing at masts reduced the mobility of the English fleet. When it came to close combat, the French suffered less damage but then sailed away. The English pursued what was a tactical move to get them away from Chesapeake Bay. In all, over the course of the two-hour battle, British fleet suffered damage to six ships, 90 sailor mortalities and 246 wounded. The French suffered 209 casualties but only had 2 ships damaged.

For several days, the fleets drifted south within view of each other without further engagement, and on 9 September, De Grasse sailed back to the Chesapeake Bay. The British arrived outside Chesapeake Bay on 13 September, and quickly realised that they were in no condition to take on so many French ships.

Admiral Thomas Graves, painted by Thomas Gainsborough

Image Credit: Thomas Gainsborough, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The British defeat was catastrophic

Eventually, the English fleet was forced to limp back to New York. The defeat sealed the fate of General Cornwallis and his men in Yorktown. Their surrender on 17 October 1781 came two days before Graves set sail with a fresh fleet. The victory at Yorktown is seen as a major turning point that contributed to the eventual independence of the United States. General George Washington recorded that ‘whatever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the casting vote in the present contest’. George III wrote of the loss that ‘I nearly think the empire ruined’.

The first of the five killed by the British was Crispus Attucks, a middle-aged sailor of African American and Indigenous American descent. Attucks’ background is shrouded in mystery: at the time of the massacre, it is possible that he was a runaway slave operating under an alias, and had since made a living working as a seaman.

What is clear, however, is the effect that Attucks’ death had upon the American people as a symbol of independence, and later African Americans’ fight for freedom and equality.

So who was Crispus Attucks?

1. He was likely of African American and Indigenous American ancestry

It is thought that Attucks was born some time around 1723 in Massachusetts, possibly in Natick, a ‘praying Indian town’ that was established as a place for Indigenous people who had converted to Christianity to live under protection. His father was an enslaved African, likely named Prince Yonger, while his mother was probably a native woman from the Wampanoag tribe named Nancy Attucks.

It is possible that Attucks was descended from John Attucks, who was hanged for treason after a rebellion against the native settlers in 1675-76.

2. He was possibly a runaway slave

Attucks spent most of his early life enslaved by someone named William Browne in Framingham. However, it seems that a 27-year-old Attucks ran away, with a newspaper report dating to 1750 running an advertisement for the recovery of a runaway slave named ‘Crispas’. The reward for his capture was 10 British pounds.

To aid in evading capture, it’s possible that Attucks used the alias Michael Johnson. Indeed, the initial coroners’ documents after the massacre identify him by that name.

Portrait of Crispus Attucks

3. He was a sailor

After escaping from slavery, Attucks made his way to Boston, where he became a sailor, since that was an occupation open to non-white people. He worked on whaling ships, and when not at sea, made a living as a rope-maker. On the night of the Boston Massacre, Attucks had returned from the Bahamas and was making his way to North Carolina.

4. He was a large man

In the newspaper advertisement for his return by Attucks’ enslaver, he was described as 6’2″, which makes him around six inches taller than the average American man of the era. John Adams, the future U.S. president who acted as the soldiers’ defence attorneys at their trial, used Attucks’ heritage and size in an effort to justify the British troops’ actions. He stated that Attucks was ‘a stout mulatto fellow, whose very looks was enough to terrify any person.’

5. He was worried about employment

Britain paid its soldiers so poorly that many had to take on part-time work to support their income. This created competition from the influx of troops, which affected the job prospects and wages of American workers such as Attucks. Attucks was also at risk of being seized by British press gangs that Parliament authorised to forcibly draft sailors into the Royal Navy. Attucks’ attack on the British soldiers was yet more marked because he risked being arrested and returned to slavery.

6. He led the angry mob who attacked the British

On 5 March 1770, Attucks was at the front of an angry mob that confronted a group of British soldiers wielding guns. Attucks brandished two wooden sticks, and after a scuffle with British Captain Thomas Preston, Preston shot Attucks twice with a musket. The second shot inflicted lethal injuries, killing Attucks and marking him as the first casualty of the American Revolution.

The soldiers were put to trial for killing the five Americans, but all were acquitted, except for Matthew Kilroy and Hugh Montgomery who were convicted of manslaughter, had their hands branded and were then released.

This 19th-century lithograph is a variation of the famous engraving of the Boston Massacre by Paul Revere

Image Credit: National Archives at College Park, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

7. More than half of Boston’s population followed his funeral procession

After he was killed, Attucks was awarded honours that no other person of colour – particularly one who had escaped enslavement – had ever been awarded before. Samuel Adams organised a procession to transport Attucks’ casket to Faneuil Hall in Boston, where he lay in state for three days before a public funeral. An estimated 10,000 to 12,000 people – which accounted for more than half of Boston’s population – joined in the procession that carried all five victims to the graveyard.

8. He became a symbol of African American liberation

In addition to becoming a martyr for the overthrowing of British rule, in the 1840s, Attucks became a symbol for African American activists and the abolitionist movement, who heralded him as an exemplary Black patriot. In 1888, the Crispus Attucks monument was unveiled in Boston Common, and his face has also featured on a commemorative silver dollar.

12 of the 13 colonies gathered in Carpenter’s Hall from 5 September to 26 October 1774 to discuss boycotting British goods and establishing rights for colonists. Additionally, they made plans for a second gathering in the near future. This event exemplified a growing defiance against British rule, raising important questions; namely, who had the right to govern the colonies and how?

What event prompted the formation of the First Continental Congress?

In early 1774, Britain passed the Coercive Acts – known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts – which were a reaction to the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, which saw American protestors destroy a shipment of British tea. The Acts reasserted British dominance and punished the colonies for the rebellion.

The Boston Tea Party

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Cornischong at lb.wikipedia / Public Domain

Part of the Coercive Acts closed off the Boston Port and rescinded the Massachusetts Charter to punish the rebels in Massachusetts especially, but it also impacted the colonies at large and gave them less control to govern themselves. As a result, colonists as far south as Georgia shipped goods up to Massachusetts, and by spring, there was a call to organise a continental congress. 

Who attended the First Continental Congress?

In early September 1774, 55 delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies gathered in Philadelphia. Georgia was the only colony that did not send any delegates, as they were on the verge of war with neighbouring indigenous tribes and did not want to lose British military support. Delegates at the gathering were elected by the public directly, by local legislatures or by committees of correspondence within the respective colonies.

Delegates from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Massachusetts arrived at Carpenter’s Hall and included Samuel Adams, George Washington and John Adams. Peyton Randolph was elected president of the convention and would preside over the delegates as they debated the future of the colonies. Each state’s delegates arrived with different desirable outcomes in mind; however, the purpose of the gathering was to present a united front against Britain.

What were the struggles of the First Continental Congress?

The First Continental Congress met from 05 September to 26 October 1774, in Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia

Image Credit: Zack Frank / Shutterstock.com

Despite the differences in desirable outcomes, all of the delegates agreed that the King and Parliament must understand the grievances of the colonies, and these grievances needed to be communicated to the whole of America as well. This was, however, the first time that the colonies were acting in union, as up until this point they had always acted independently of each other. There was a bit of distrust and discomfort to overcome if they were to work towards shared goals.

The First Continental Congress struggled to form a list of rights, grievances and demands. It was therefore necessary to create a Grand Committee to address larger issues of British abuse. The delegates debated for weeks, attempting to create a statement that would answer questions that had been plaguing colonies for over a century. How would they answer the question of Britain’s right to regulate trade? 

One solution came from Pennsylvania delegate Joseph Galloway. A Plan of Union was drafted to create a Colonial Parliament that would work alongside the British Parliament. The intention would be for the British monarch to appoint a President General so that the colonies could have greater control over trade and commerce. Ultimately, this plan was voted down, and the delegates returned to the Continental Association. Eventually, the First Continental Congress successfully organised an economic boycott of British trade and delivered a petition for redress of grievances to King George III and Parliament.

What did the First Continental Congress achieve?

The first act of the congress was to support the Suffolk Resolves that had already passed in Suffolk County, Massachusetts. Here, citizens were ordered not to obey the Intolerable Acts, to refuse British goods and to raise a militia. Next, they began drafting the Continental Association. This called for an end to British imports and an end to the exporting of goods to Britain. This would be enforced by local committees checking ships, having colonists sign documents pledging loyalty to the Continental Association, and suppressing mob violence. As a result, imports from Britain dropped by 95% in 1775 compared to the previous year. 

Using non-importation as leverage was not a new idea, as 8 colonies had already endorsed the measure ahead of the gathering and others had already began working to ban importation. In fact, future president George Washington had been advocating for non-importation as early as 1769, which can be found in letters between Washington and George Mason. At this stage, many delegates believed it was too late to appeal to the British Parliament by petitioning. It would no longer be useful to change Parliament’s ways. 

Portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Though the first gathering in Carpenter’s Hall proved fruitful, there was still work to be done to create explicit demands. Eventually, delegates were able to draft a Declaration of Rights which included life, liberty, property and the right to establish their own taxes within the colonies. The final draft was approved on 14 October 1774, in which King George and Parliament were warned a revolution would occur if the demands were not met.

By the end of the first gathering, after 51 days of deliberation, the delegates decided a Second Continental Congress would reconvene the following spring. Their intention was to give Britain time to respond to the Continental Association and discuss any developments. In this time, several delegates, including George Washington, purchased muskets and began studying military strategy.

Though a war had not yet been declared, many were starting to believe that one was inevitable, as Britain would not redress. As these delegates returned to Philadelphia in the spring of 1775, they learned of the Battles of Lexington and Concord that would mark the start of the Revolutionary War. 

His presidency was defined by a quasi-war with France. He was a determined Federalist, and his letters to Thomas Jefferson after they had both left office provide some of the greatest insight into early American political theory to date. His role in shaping the American Revolution and early American politics was monumental.

Here’s the story of John Adams, America’s second president.

Where was John Adams born?

John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735, and his family could trace their lineage to the first generation of Puritan settlers that arrived on the Mayflower voyage. In his youth, his father encouraged him to go into the ministry.

Adams attended Harvard and worked for a few years teaching before ultimately deciding to pursue law instead. He married Abigail Smith in 1764. She would become a confidante and political partner throughout his career. One of their children, John Quincy Adams, would also serve as an American President. 

Abigail Adams, 1766

Image Credit: Benjamin Blyth, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Was John Adams a patriot or loyalist?

A patriot, in 1765 Adams published an essay titled A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law which opposed the Stamp Act passed by the British that same year. He argued that Parliament exposed themselves as corrupt by intruding in colonial affairs – specifically by requiring all publications and legal documents to bear a stamp. He continued to be a leader in Massachusetts, dissenting against future policies like the Townshend Acts. This would earn him a reputation that would lead to his involvement in the formation of a new country.

However, he did defend British soldiers who had fired into a crowd in the Boston Massacre of 1770 – arguing that they had been provoked and were defending themselves. Though this position lost him some favour, it showed to others his dedication to upholding legal rights and doing the right thing, even if it made him unpopular. He believed the soldiers deserved a fair trial, even if their actions were despicable in the public eye.

Because of his actions and strong moral compass, he was elected to the First Continental Congress in 1774, joining delegates from 12 of the 13 original colonies in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He and his cousin, Samuel Adams, were considered radical, as they completely opposed reconciliation with Britain. He argued that King George III and Parliament not only lacked the authority to tax the colonies, but they also had no right to legislate them in any way. 

The Boston Massacre, 1770

Image Credit: Paul Revere, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

What role did John Adams play in the Revolutionary War?

John Adams was responsible for nominating George Washington as the commander of the Continental Army. Further, he chose Thomas Jefferson as the man to draft the Declaration of Independence. He did this to ensure Virginia’s support in joining the revolution, which was uncertain, as both men represented the colony. 

Further, Adams wrote Thoughts on Government, which was distributed throughout the colonies to help draft state constitutions. In 1776, he also drafted the Plan of Treaties which would serve as the framework for securing France’s assistance in the war. He created the American navy and equipped the army as the head of the Board of War and Ordnance. He drafted the Massachusetts constitution in 1780, which was modelled again by other states. One aspect of this state constitution that would transfer to the US Constitution was the separation of powers. 

As the Revolutionary War waged on, John Adams joined Benjamin Franklin in Paris to negotiate peace between Britain and the United States. Adams was considered confrontational by other delegates, which made it difficult to negotiate with him; however, Franklin was more discrete, so together they were able to get the job done. Adams and his family would spend several more years in Europe, with Adams serving as a diplomat. They returned to the US in 1789 where Adams was promptly voted in as the first Vice President of the United States of America. 

Was John Adams a Federalist?

John Adams was a Federalist, meaning he favoured a strong national government as well as commercial and diplomatic harmony with Britain. The Federalist Party made a lasting impact on the early years of American politics by creating a national judicial system and formulating principles of foreign policy. It was one of the first two political parties in the US and was organized during George Washington’s first administration, founded on expanding national power over state power. It would eventually split into the Democratic and Whig parties.

After Washington served two terms without desiring to be elected for a third, Adams was then elected president of the United States in 1796. As the first president to live in the White House, Adams would serve only one term, losing his bid for re-election to Thomas Jefferson in 1800. 

Official presidential portrait of John Adams

Image Credit: John Trumbull, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Was John Adams a good president?

Adams’ presidency was marked by an unpopular quasi-war with France that hurt his presidency, even though it was a conflict inherited from George Washington. Washington had declared neutrality in conflicts between Britain and France, but in 1795 a treaty was signed with the British that was interpreted by the French as being hostile. France had been hoping for American support during their revolution as a sign of gratitude for France’s help during the American Revolution. Adams would attempt to negotiate peace with France, but French diplomats demanded bribes in exchange for a peaceful negotiation, which Adams’ administration refused. As a result, French ships began attacking American ports, and an undeclared war ensued in the seas.

As a Federalist, Adams was pro-war, so even though he knew the United States could not afford another war, it was part of his core political belief. However, he did seek a peaceful resolution on more than one occasion, recognizing the risks to trade and security, while wearing full military uniform to assert himself as Commander-in-Chief in public.

Others in the government remained friendly with France, including Thomas Jefferson, who were still grateful for France’s assistance in the Revolutionary War, and Adams was often undermined by his cabinet as a result. Alexander Hamilton in particular, who would succeed him, would speak out against him. During this time, Adams passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which limited freedom of speech, an act that caused great public outcry. Though peace would come and the Acts would expire, it would occur only after Adams had been voted out of office. 

John Adams, c. 1816, by Samuel Morse

Image Credit: Samuel Finley Breese Morse, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

What did John Adams do after his presidency?

After serving as president, John Adams returned to Massachusetts with Abigail to live out the rest of his days, including seeing his son, John Quincy, become president as well. He took up correspondence with Thomas Jefferson, an old friend turned rival, to discuss political theory. These letters are a comprehensive look at the minds of two Founding Fathers on religion, philosophy, politics, and more.

Both men died on 4 July 1826, on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, passing within hours of each other and leaving legacies as founders of American independence.