Now, with exclusive access to this astonishing find, Tristan Hughes embarks on an investigation to uncover the hoard’s secrets. In History Hit’s new documentary, The Melsonby Hoard, he explores what this extraordinary discovery reveals about a part of ancient Britain often overshadowed by the South. From intricate chariot fittings and ornate horse harnesses to a mass of fused metalwork, this is a once-in-a-generation discovery that is rewriting the story of the Iron Age.

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A hoard that helps rewrite history

In December 2021, a metal detectorist made the discovery of a lifetime on the outskirts of Melsonby, Yorkshire. Buried in two separate deposits, this colossal hoard was filled with a diverse array of items: chariot parts, horse gear, spears, and even large bronze cauldrons. This wasn’t just a collection of objects; it was a snapshot of a moment in time, a ritual offering left behind just before the Roman conquest. And its existence is reshaping what archaeologists thought they knew about Iron Age Britain.

The find was made close to the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications, a major power centre in northern Britain during the late Iron Age. In the programme, Tristan meets with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University, who explains that Stanwick was likely the key power centre for the Brigantes, a confederacy of peoples mentioned in Roman histories.

Tristan Hughes discusses the Melsonby Hoard with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University

Image Credit: History Hit

The sheer quantity and quality of the Melsonby artefacts suggest a level of wealth and sophistication previously thought to be exclusive to the south of England – proving that northern Britain was home to equally powerful and well-connected societies, with long-distance trade networks stretching as far as the Mediterranean.

A deliberate act

Why would someone bury such a staggering collection of objects? As Professor Moore reveals, the hoards were deliberately placed in two separate trenches, with many objects intentionally broken and even smashed with boulders. This wasn’t a hidden stash meant to be recovered later; it was a symbolic act, a ritual deposit.

The absence of any personal adornments or human remains makes this find particularly unique. Instead, the hoard contains ceremonial feasting items, like cauldrons, and military gear. Among the most exciting finds are iron tyres from four-wheeled wagons, the first indication that these types of vehicles were used in Britain. These objects weren’t all owned by a single person; instead, they represent a communal offering, a powerful statement of wealth and unity.

The dating of the hoard – to the early 1st century AD, just before the Roman arrival – suggests it may be related to the period before the reign of the powerful Queen Cartimandua. Professor Moore explains that it’s possible the hoard is connected to another, equally powerful female ruler, offering a tantalising new layer to our understanding of Iron Age society, and how, as he explains, “female rulers were probably quite common”.

The mysteries of the ‘block’

The Melsonby hoard includes what archaeologists call “the block” – a 250kg mass of Iron Age metalwork. Tristan meets Dr Emily Williams, an archaeological conservator at Durham University, who explains how this unique find was carefully excavated and is now undergoing vital conservation work.

The ‘Block’ – part of the Melsonby Hoard

A CT scan of the block has revealed more secrets, showing that it contains many of the same types of objects as the main deposit, including spears. Intriguingly, it’s also believed to contain Roman pilums – spears. The team hopes to keep the block intact, rather than dismantling it, preserving its secrets for future generations to study.

A game-changer on a cliff edge

Dr Keith Emerick, an Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England, describes the Melsonby hoard as “spectacular and unusual,” and “a game-changer” for our understanding of the Iron Age. The sheer scale and research potential of the find is unlike anything he has ever seen.

Tristan Hughes with Dr Keith Emerick, Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England inspect some of the Melsonby Hoard

However, the fate of the Melsonby Hoard hangs in the balance.

Tristan visits the Yorkshire Museum, where a small fraction of the hoard is on display for the first time. Emily North, Curator of Archaeology at the museum explains how the museum is currently undertaking a monumental fundraising effort to acquire the entire hoard for the nation. If successful, the hoard will become the property of the people of Yorkshire and Britain forever, ensuring it remains a single collection for vital conservation and research. Without these funds, there is a risk that individual pieces could be sold off to private collectors, scattering the collection and its secrets.

“Legally it’s treasure, but it’s a real treasure in terms of the secrets that it holds” explains Emily. As Tristan notes, this incredible discovery is reshaping our understanding of the Iron Age, and it’s vital that it can be kept together so that its story – the story of a buried kingdom and a lost people – can be told in full.

Join Tristan Hughes in a special documentary as he gets up close with this unprecedented discovery and uncovers the full story of The Melsonby Hoard.

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In the second film in an exciting new partnership between History Hit and one of the world’s oldest and finest public museums, the University of Oxford’s Ashmolean Museum, Professor Suzannah Lipscomb journeys behind the scenes to uncover the fascinating world of Mesopotamian demons. Guided by curator Dr Nancy Highcock, Suzannah explores how ancient people sought protection in a world where the supernatural was woven into the fabric of everyday life in The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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A world infused with the supernatural

Mesopotamia, meaning the land “between two rivers”, stretches across the Middle East in the historical region located in the fertile crescent between the Euphrates and the Tigres rivers (today it now largely encompasses modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey). It was home to many of the earliest civilizations, including the Assyrians. For these people, the line between the natural and supernatural was practically non-existent.

As Dr Highcock explains, “In Mesopotamia, the supernatural were all around us.” People believed malevolent demons and ghosts were ever-present, causing illnesses and other misfortunes, making it vital to keep one’s ancestors happy and ward of evil spirits. In such a volatile world, images held real power, and every doorway, window, and even the corner of a room was a potential entry point for evil forces.

To protect themselves and feel a sense of control, they created a remarkable array of objects to harness and control these forces. The programme begins with a powerful testament to this belief: a colossal relief of a protective spirit called an Abkalu. With the body of a man and the head of an eagle, this 9th-century BC relief once guarded a palace entrance. Suzannah and Dr Highcock examine the intricate details of the figure, which holds a sacred purifying tool in one hand, designed to ward off evil from the king’s throne room.

Dr Nancy Highcock (left) and Professor Suzannah Lipscombe (right) look at some of the Ancient Mesopotamian demons in the Ashmolean Museum’s collection.

Image Credit: History Hit

Harnessing demonic power

Protection wasn’t just for the elite. The programme offers a close look at smaller, more personal artefacts used by ordinary people, including a small clay head of a demon ‘Humbaba’. Dating from around 2,000 BC, this mask-like figure is recognisable from one of the oldest known works of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Suzannah learns this tiny clay head was likely used as a protective charm hung on a household doorway, a way for everyday people to contain the power and violence of the demon.

Next, Suzannah examines an amulet designed to protect women and children. The amulet depicts a female demon ‘Lamashtu’, who was blamed for infant deaths and miscarriages. As Dr Highcock reveals, the Mesopotamians believed they could fight fire with fire. By capturing the image of a demon, miniaturising it, and putting it on an amulet, they could harness its power against itself. 

Amulet depicting a terrifying female demon named Lamashtu.

Even the demons had their enemies. Suzannah is shown another finely carved amulet, this one depicting the wind god Pazuzu, a formidable monster with a powerful physique. Pazuzu was considered an antagonist to Lamashtu and was specifically used to fight off the child-murdering demon.

The amulet, inscribed in the first person (“I am Pazuzu…”), speaks to a culture where an image wasn’t just a representation; it was imbued with the power of the being itself. The inscription may have even been read aloud during critical moments, such as childbirth, to invoke the demon’s protective power.

Divine dogs and a battle for control

With the constant battle between supernatural forces, humans sought to align themselves with protective beings to gain a sense of control. The programme features another fascinating example of this practice: small clay dogs found at the ancient site of Kish. These dogs, buried at doorways or placed under thresholds, were given powerful names like “Destroyer of Life” and “Biter of the Enemy.” They were believed to actively ward off evil spirits, offering a tangible defence against an otherwise invisible threat.

These astonishing objects from The Ashmolean Museum’s collection offer a unique window into the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. They reveal a world where divine and demonic forces shaped daily life, and where people – from rulers to ordinary citizens – sought protection and peace in a volatile existence. Though these empires may have fallen long ago, through these enduring artefacts, their people and beliefs still speak to us today.

Join Professor Suzannah Lipscomb and Dr Nancy Highcock as they reveal the hidden, magical world of Mesopotamian demons in the new episode of The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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In the latest episode of History Hit’s “Royal Sex” podcast mini-series, Dr Kate Lister is joined by renowned archaeologist and Egyptologist Dr Sarah Parcak to explore why. Prepare to challenge long-held myths and uncover the fascinating realities of one of history’s most powerful and controversial female rulers.

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A strategic mind beyond her years

When people think of Egypt, two things often come to mind: Cleopatra and pyramids. Yet, as Dr Sarah Parcak reveals, understanding Cleopatra’s true brilliance requires looking beyond popular imagery. Dr Parcak explains that Cleopatra “fully understood who she was and the moment Egypt was in when the Romans invaded… and she knew what she had to do to make Egypt’s memory survive”. This last ruler of Ancient Egypt enacted a multi-thousand-year plan for her nation’s legacy, and “she nailed it”.

Cleopatra was no mere seductress; she was an extraordinary politician, exceptionally intelligent, and fluent in as many as 8 or 9 languages (indeed she was the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language). Deeply versed in mathematics and philosophy, her “piercing intelligence” and extraordinary presence allowed her to command conversations on complex subjects. 

In the podcast you’ll discover how Cleopatra harnessed not just her intellect, but also her understanding of sexuality and fertility, deeply connected to Egyptian religion, to consolidate her immense power.

The unlikely path to Pharaoh

Was Cleopatra destined to be Pharaoh? Not necessarily – the throne was expected to pass to one of her brothers. However, even at a young age, Cleopatra displayed an “extraordinary aptitude and intelligence” says Dr Parcak, demonstrating a finesse for politics that her father, Ptolemy XII recognised and nurtured. Her experience in Rome as a child, strategically arranged by her father, also proved crucial for navigating international power dynamics and maintaining Egypt’s independence later in life.

Eventually, she was crowned co-regent with her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Following a civil war that erupted from their falling-out, he died in the Battle of the Nile. She later co-ruled with her other brother Ptolemy XIV, who subsequently died under mysterious circumstances. Ultimately, her sheer force of will ensured she effectively reigned alone.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

Debunking myths

Cleopatra is inextricably linked to the myth of sex, particularly with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Yet, the podcast debunks many assumptions. You’ll hear why Cleopatra was almost certainly a virgin before meeting Caesar, despite rampant rumours.

Her famously dramatic encounter with Julius Caesar, far from a mere seduction, was a strategic unveiling and, according to Dr Parcak, a profound “meeting of minds” between two brilliant political strategists. Their relationship quickly deepened, leading to love and the birth of their son. This “stunning, brilliant, younger woman” who could converse with him on every subject captivated Caesar, playing to his ego and cementing an alliance beneficial to Rome. 

The Roman reaction to Cleopatra’s presence in Rome was mixed; some branded her a “whore”, while others were utterly captivated, inspiring an explosion in the cult of Isis. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra swiftly returned to Egypt, later initiating her famous relationship with Mark Antony. Though often portrayed as a wild fling, their bond was enduring and resulted in three children. Dr Parcak stresses that Cleopatra had very few documented lovers, challenging the notion of promiscuity perpetuated by Roman propaganda, which conveniently targeted this brazen, powerful woman.

The Death of Cleopatra by Jean-André Rixens.

Image Credit: Public Domain

Tragedy and enduring legacy

In the podcast, Dr Parcak explains how Cleopatra’s reign faced immense challenges, including widespread drought and famine (as well as from surprising sources) that may have influenced the lead-up to crucial battles such as the Battle of Actium. When Rome inevitably sought to absorb Egypt, and after Mark Antony’s death, Cleopatra made her ultimate, iconic choice, avoiding public humiliation by Octavian in Roman triumph.

Her death, often depicted as an asp bite, was likely a swift, self-administered poison – a decision reflecting her innate understanding of her image and how it would secure Egypt’s lasting memory as Rome absorbed her kingdom.

The podcast explores how, like other powerful queens including Catherine the Great and Marie Antoinette, Cleopatra became a victim of misogynistic narratives, her power often sexualised to discredit her. Yet, Dr Parcak argues Cleopatra deliberately curated her image, using her appearance not for promiscuity, but to embody Egypt’s power and continuity.

Join Dr Kate Lister and Dr Sarah Parcak on Royal Sex: Cleopatra to navigate the intricate world of rumour, power, and passion that defined one of history’s most compelling rulers to uncover the true legacy of Cleopatra.

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In The Cutting Edge: Testing the Stone Age, History Hit visits Kent State University in Ohio, home to one of the world’s leading experimental archaeology laboratories. Here, Dr Metin Eren and Dr Michelle Bebber are scientifically exploring our distant past, meticulously recreating, experimenting with, and testing the technology of our ancient ancestors. 

Join them for a fascinating ‘cutting-edge’ experiment that investigates a vital technological development: the use and creation of tools, particularly those designed for cutting. They put the Stone Age to the test, exploring a key question: did early hominins use naturally occurring sharp rocks before they began to make their own tools?  

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The power of experimental archaeology

Using tools to cut was a pivotal step in human evolution, enabling butchering and even the beginnings of combining materials. In the past, it was assumed there was a ‘eureka moment’ where cutting tools were always deliberately made, rather than simply found in the landscape.  But is this right?  

“We can’t observe ancient people, and we can’t observe how they used the artefacts that we dig-up millions of years later,” explains Metin. “What we do is we recreate their technology, and then we do all sorts of experiments to figure out how it worked. That’s the only way we can kind of bring this stuff back to life.”

Michelle adds that this meticulous replication helps us “understand the behavioural processes that resulted in these tools,” even though we can never access the ancient mind. 

Unveiling Oldowan tools

Metin and Michelle begin by crafting replicas of Oldowan tools – some of the earliest known stone tools discovered in sites across Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Kenya. These seemingly simple tools were designed for key evolutionary steps, primarily hammering, and most importantly, cutting.

Recognising and utilising a sharp object as a tool launched humans onto a technological trajectory that continues to this day. As Metin points out “by separating out materials, we would have access to nutrients that would build up our hominin brain”. This pivotal development ultimately led to spears, knives, hunting, and the continuous innovation we see today.

Diversity of forms of recreated Stone Age tools

Image Credit: History Hit

A tapestry of innovation

The Stone Age, spanning millions of years, saw a huge diversity of tool forms, representing varied and unique solutions to survival problems. Metin explains that this period marked “the birth of our high intelligence”.

Beyond efficiency, this variety indicates our ancestors developing an appreciation for tools that were also aesthetically pleasing. As Michelle says, the constant tweaking and refinement of these tools over hundreds of thousands of years “stimulated a lot of the aesthetic and artistic expression we see later in our species”. This full arsenal allowed our species to colonise the globe, demonstrating that diversity in technological, cultural, and behavioural adaptations is our species’ greatest strength.

A hands-on approach

The experimental archaeology lab offers a unique advantage. As Metin notes, while priceless museum artefacts are untouchable, “What we do here is we recreate those artefacts and we can make as many as we need and then we test the hell out of them.”

Michelle and Metin use these replica cutting tools to test their groundbreaking theory: were early tools deliberately manufactured, or did our ancestors simply discover and utilise naturally occurring sharp rocks? Helping them is Emma Finestone of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, an expert in early tool creation who works in the field in Kenya, finding our ancestors’ early tools dating back over 1.7 million years.

Their controlled cutting tests compare the effectiveness of naturally sharp rocks with hominin-produced stone flakes, with some surprising results. The documentary also examines the much later, highly advanced Clovis culture tools discovered in Ohio, representing the zenith of stone technology from over 10,000 years ago.

Through their innovative scientific techniques, Metin and Michelle are shedding exciting new light on the fundamental question of how and when humanity took its first key steps on its extraordinary journey.

Join us in The Cutting Edge: Testing the Stone Age for a thought-provoking investigation that reveals the extraordinary advances of the longest era of our past, the Stone Age.

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Over six captivating films, releasing throughout 2025, History Hit is going behind the scenes to discover some of the Ashmolean’s most precious and surprising objects, in depth and up close. From ancient Middle Eastern protective figurines to strange and exquisite 18th century Memento Mori reminding us of the inevitability of death; from Egyptian figures crafted before the first pharaohs to one of the greatest Anglo Saxon treasures of them all, the Alfred Jewel, this fascinating new series will cast remarkable light on the Ashmolean’s exceptionally rich and varied collection.

The films are presented by Dan Snow and Suzannah Lipscomb, with the expert guidance and insights of the museum’s world-renowned curators.

In this first film, The Ashmolean Up Close: Nero’s Golden House, Dan Snow invites us to imagine a dinner party with the Emperor Nero in his legendary ‘Domus Aurea’, his Golden House in Rome.

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A glimpse into Nero’s world

Dan’s journey begins with an extraordinary fresco from Nero’s palace. Discovered deep within the palace ruins near the Colosseum in 1688, this nearly 2,000 year old painting from a dining room offers a rare window into Nero’s aesthetic. It depicts Adonis being presented to the goddess Aphrodite, a scene hinting at the sensual atmosphere of Nero’s lavish banquets.

Yet, as Dan discovers, the latest conservation work in the Ashmolean studio is raising fascinating questions. As the fresco is prepared for display in the museum’s Roman galleries, conservator Alexandra Baldwin is meticulously cleaning away centuries of later repairs and over-paint using agar (a seaweed-derived material). Witness this delicate process as layers of history are peeled back, revealing the fresco’s original Roman splendour and raising questions about how much more of Nero’s original vision can be unveiled.

Research Keeper of Antiquities, Paul Roberts, guides Dan through the story of Nero’s opulent home, exploring how this fresco and other beautiful Roman dining artefacts from the Ashmolean’s collection offer clues to Nero’s often transgressive lifestyle.

Conservator Alexandra Baldwin from the Ashmolean team applying agar to clean away over-paint from a fresco from Nero’s Golden House, revealing its original Roman splendour

Image Credit: History Hit

Sensuality at the Roman table

Beyond the wall paintings, Paul guides Dan through exquisite Roman tableware, revealing how every detail, from hand-crafted silver cups adorned with myrtle leaves and berries to unique wine rituals, was designed to signal immense wealth and subtly encourage an atmosphere ripe for ‘loosening up’. The very air of these dinner parties would be charged with a deliberate, sensual allure. 

Power and perception

The programme also delves into Nero’s coinage, offering surprising insights into the dynamics of his power. You’ll discover how early coins tell a different story about his relationship with his formidable mother, Agrippina the Younger.

All these objects within the Ashmolean’s collection converge to paint a compelling portrait of Nero: an emperor whose grand excesses and governmental failings ultimately led to his downfall and the ruin of his magnificent Domus Aurea.

Watch The Ashmolean Up Close: Nero’s Golden House and find out more about the sensory world of this enigmatic emperor hidden within his opulent palace.

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Step into the arena with History Hit’s new documentary, Gladiators: History’s Greatest Fighters,  and join Dan Snow as he teams up with leading experts in Italy and England to uncover the surprising truths behind our enduring fascination and investigates the daily lives of history’s most iconic combatants.

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While Rome famously popularised the games, gladiator-style combat actually began much earlier, during Italy’s mysterious Etruscan period (800-400 BC). These brutal bouts, initially solemn funeral rites, quickly evolved into grand public spectacles.

Dan begins his quest at the amphitheatre in Capua, considered the birthplace of the Roman gladiatorial games, exploring how politicians harnessed these displays for power, transforming them into a tool for entertainment and public distraction that soon spread throughout the burgeoning Roman Empire.

The amphitheatre in Capua, considered the birthplace of the Roman gladiatorial games.

Life in the Ludus

Every major city in the Roman world eventually boasted an amphitheatre, but the Colosseum remains the ultimate symbol. Just outside its colossal walls lay the Ludus Magnus, Rome’s elite gladiator training school. Here, Dan speaks with gladiator historian Alexander Mariotti who reveals how this “ancient sports club” transformed raw recruits into the champions who electrified crowds.

You’ll discover that these fighters weren’t all slaves; many were free men drawn by the potential for immense wealth. A gladiator’s earning potential could be 17 times that of a Roman army recruit, offering a pathway out of poverty.

Mariotti explains how these valuable assets – a significant investment for their owners (the lanistas) – received exceptional care, receiving regular meals (often barley and beans), recovery baths, and dedicated medical attention, challenging the myth of gladiators as mere fodder. 

Duality and distraction

The world of gladiatorial combat was more diverse than often imagined, featuring over 20 gladiator types. Dan learns about the deliberate, contrasting pairings, such as the heavily armoured murmillo (“fish man”) with his short sword, against the agile thraex (Thracian) with his curved dagger, or the shielded secutor battling the nimble retiarius, armed with a net and trident. Mariotti explains how these “mismatched” duels were precisely orchestrated for maximum entertainment, emphasising themes of duality – man against nature, speed against power – designed to thrill the spectators.

But how often did these highly trained fighters enter the arena, and what did a typical day at the games entail? Gladiatorial appearances varied by period and emperor, but one constant emerged: during times of crosos, the games became the ultimate distraction, a powerful tool for emperors to pacify citizens and divert attention from political turmoil.

A full day at the amphitheatre was a meticulously orchestrated affair, moving from grand parades and spectacular beast hunts, to half-time entertainment featuring acrobats, dancers, and even public executions. The lavish displays, often accompanied by raffles offering free food, wine, and prizes, culminated in the highly anticipated gladiator matches – the dramatic climax of the show.

Chaser and Retiarius gladiators

A spreading empire

As the Roman Empire expanded, so did the popularity of gladiatorial games and the construction of purpose-built amphitheatres across its vast territories, from Italy to North Africa and even the fringes of Britain. Dan explores evidence from sites like Richborough Amphitheatre and objects like the Hawkedon helmet, revealing the far-reaching impact of these spectacles. 

However, the gladiatorial system wasn’t without its internal threats. The early training hub of Capua became the spark for a rebellion that nearly toppled Rome. In 73 BC, the legendary Spartacus, an agile Thracian gladiator, led a slave revolt that ignited the Third Servile War. Spartacus and his thousands of followers initially trounced Roman armies, threatening the Empire’s very social and political order, before his eventual defeat led to brutal repercussions and stricter state regulation of gladiators. 

The true cost of combat

Alexander Mariotti explains that gladiatorial combat was “a mix between the pageantry of American wrestling with the brutality of UFC and with weapons added in”. While exceptionally dangerous, gladiators accepted the risk for the lucrative rewards. Dan investigates whether death in the arena was as common as popular culture suggests, or if other threats, like infected wounds, posed a greater danger.

Dan also explores the Colosseum itself with Dr Shushma Malik, learning how this iconic arena, conceived by Emperor Vespasian during a period of chaos, symbolised Rome’s resurgence and Vespasian’s generosity. Its immense scale cemented its status as an imperial symbol, and you’ll hear about the detailed account of its opening games, featuring famous gladiators Priscus and Varus, remains a primary source for understanding these spectacles.

The Colosseum

Image Credit: Shutterstock

A British connection

Dan also heads to the British Museum where he meets Senior Curator Richard Hobbs to find out more about other evidence of gladiatorial combat on the fringes of the Roman empire in Britain, including the Hawkedon helmet (c43-70AD), found in a field in Suffolk. His journey finishes at Richborough Amphitheatre, where he speaks to Roman archaeologist and historian Dr Simon Elliot  about the 12 amphitheatres found to date across Britain. 

As Dan Snow reflects, the gladiator games were more than just entertainment. They served as a powerful tool for spreading Roman culture, assimilating conquered peoples, and pacifying the populace through “bread and circuses.” This raises a fascinating question: who were the real winners of the gladiatorial games? 

Watch Gladiators: History’s Greatest Fighters and uncover the untold stories, the rigorous training, and the complex societal role of these iconic ancient warriors.

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From the chiselled physiques of gods to the stoic forms of athletes, Ancient Greek sculpture epitomises the male body ideal. Yet, one detail often draws attention, often provoking a raised eyebrow: the diminutive size of their sculpted genitalia. Is this an artistic oversight? A curious quirk? Or does it reveal a deeper truth about the essence of masculinity in Ancient Greece?

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Throughout Ancient Greece’s vast timeline, from its mysterious Dark Ages through its Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, each era boasted distinct cultural norms, artistic styles, and varying representations of the human form.

Kate delves into original sources to understand what the Ancient Greeks truly valued when it came to male anatomy. Did size matter in Ancient Greece? She explores the impact of Dionysiac rituals and the works of Greek playwright Aristophanes, uncovering a prevailing view that may challenge modern perceptions. 

The documentary also addresses the question of missing members on many ancient statues. Kate goes behind the scenes at the British Museum to explore the ‘Museum Secretum’, a hidden part of the museum full of erotic antiquities, to explore the historical reasoning behind the frequent absence of genitalia on many ancient sculptures. 

With her trusty tape measure in hand, Kate also heads to the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. There, she meets its Director, Classicist Professor Caroline Vout, to examine a renowned sculpture: Doryphoros – ‘The Spear Carrier’. Created by Polykleitos, an artist famous for his treatise on perfect human proportion, Doryphoros’s body, while beautifully rendered, still deviates from real-world male anatomy – particularly in the genital area.

Kate Lister talks to Director of the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology, Classicist Professor Caroline Vout.

Image Credit: History Hit

So, why this artistic choice? In the documentary, Kate explores several compelling theories, each shedding light on different facets of Ancient Greek society and philosophy.

Was it about self-control, restraint, and intellectualism, a reflection of the Greek ideal of the civilised man who masterfully controlled his natural urges? Did it tie into their emphasis on rational thought and freedom to pursue wisdom, as suggested by figures like Plato? Or was it simply about aesthetics, creating a “neat, tidy” appearance that avoided distraction? Kate also delves into more provocative ideas around youth as well as ancient theories about the male body and reproduction.

Kate Lister conducting her research (both at the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology and the British Museum)

Image Credit: History Hit

Dicking About is not just about what’s on display; it’s about what these sculptures and artistic choices reveal about a civilisation that profoundly shaped Western thought. By examining these surprising details, we uncover profound insights into Ancient Greek ideals of masculinity, beauty, self-control, and their stark contrast with the “barbarians” they defined themselves against.

Join Kate Lister as she uncovers the fascinating, and often surprising, reasons behind one of the most curious features of classical art.

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In Episode 1 of The Secrets of Stone Age Ireland, History Hit’s Ancients expert, Tristan Hughes, delves into the complex’s enigmatic passage tombs, exploring their breathtaking rock art – carvings that predate Celtic culture by millennia – and investigates the myths and beliefs that have echoed through this sacred landscape for over 5,000 years.

Newgrange: a Stone Age cathedral?

Nestled by the sacred River Boyne, an ancient highway for Ireland’s earliest inhabitants, Brú na Bóinne holds some of the most magnificent and densely located rock art in the prehistoric world.

While archaeologists have identified 150 monuments in the valley – with 40 still visible today – it’s the world-famous passage tombs of Newgrange, Knowth, and Dowth that dominate, dating back to the Neolithic period (the last era of the Stone Age) around 4,000 BC. This was a pivotal time when farming transformed societies, and the fertile Boyne Valley became an ideal home for Ireland’s earliest farmers.

Passage tombs were stone burial chambers, accessed by long passages, and covered with large mounds of earth and stone cairns. They have been found across Europe, but at Brú na Bóinne one stands apart: Newgrange. So significant is its scale and sophistication that some archaeologists consider it the Stone Age equivalent of a cathedral, built on the highest point of a ridge, clearly intended to be seen by all who travelled the Boyne.

A discovery older than some pyramids

Newgrange was uncovered by accident in 1699 by local landowner Charles Campbell, whose workers unwittingly uncovered its entrance during a building project. People soon ventured to Newgrange to examine the site, and later, organic building material found within the tomb dated it to 3,200 BC, making Newgrange older than Stonehenge (3,000BC) and the Great Pyramid of Giza (c2,600 BC). 

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A masterpiece of engineering and belief

Originally built more than 5,000 years ago, the true grandeur of Newgrange was restored through a meticulous archaeological restoration in the 1960s and 70s, led by Professor Michael O’Kelly. His team’s work offers the closest glimpse we have into Newgrange’s original appearance over 5 millennia ago.

Standing 11 metres high, 85 metres across, and covering an acre, the restored mound is a testament to extraordinary ancient engineering. At least 450 slabs of stone form the inner tomb, weighing over 200,000 tonnes, encircled by 97 massive kerbstones and a stunning facade of white quartz. 

Tristan Hughes filming at the entrance passage and entrance stone at Newgrange, which features the triple spiral motif

Image Credit: History Hit

The Brú na Bóinne visitor centre has faithfully reconstructed the tomb’s 19 metre-long passage, which narrows and deepens to guide visitors into its core. Here, three great recesses cut into the rock are thought to be ancient resting places. The tomb also holds captivating rock art, including the iconic triple spiral motif. Originally thought to be a Celtic symbol, this design was etched into the stone thousands of years before the Celts arrived in Ireland, and is said to symbolise the harmony of balance and a deep connection to the spiritual realm.

Even the stones themselves tell a story. One of the defining features of Newgrange are its 97 colossal kerbstones that form its perimeter, some intricately decorated. These great rocks were quarried 25km away at Clogherhead in County Louth. This area, where continents once collided 400 million years ago, offered unique vertical rock formations.

Archaeology suggests the builders of Newgrange, using only basic tools, extracted these massive stones – each weighing roughly 3 tonnes – and loaded them onto barges for transport. An additional 300 stones were sourced from here for the tomb’s passage and central chamber, demonstrating a monumental feat of logistics and labour. 

The construction of Newgrange was an epic undertaking, estimated to have taken over 300 people 30 years to complete. It’s believed an intricate scaffolding and ramp system was used, with its remarkable roof created using corbelling – a sophisticated technique where stones are gradually angled inward, locking together to cover the central space.

The revetment and kerbstones at Newgrange

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / CC / Daniel Stockman

The Winter Solstice alignment

Perhaps the most breathtaking secret of Newgrange lies in its deliberate astronomical alignment. As Dr. Muiris O’Sullivan, a Newgrange expert and archaeologist from University College Dublin, explains to Tristan, the monument is “famously aligned onto the midwinter rising sun.” The axis of this alignment runs precisely from the front stone to the back stone.

Above the entrance, an opening known as the ‘roofbox’ allows a clever phenomenon to occur. On the shortest day of the year (21 December) and a few days before and after, the rising sun sends a direct beam of light through this roofbox. For 17 minutes, the ancient chamber is bathed in the golden glow of the winter sun. This precision engineering points to a profound ritualistic or spiritual purpose, the exact nature of which remains unknown. 

This tomb, created by highly skilled individuals and used repeatedly throughout the Neolithic period, served as a sacred space for the elite. As Dr. O’Sullivan notes, “Presumably the people buried in there were the elite of some form. We know that there were male and female, and various age groups…seeming to suggest family rather than individual prestige”. 

Eager to delve deeper into Ireland’s ancient past? Discover more about Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth’s passage tombs in Episode 1 of History Hit’s Prehistoric Ireland: Secrets of the Stone Age.

Then, join Tristan Hughes as he continues his journey into Ireland’s Bronze Age – a golden age of transformation in Episode 2 of Prehistoric Ireland: A Metal Revolution.

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“We believe it is the only certain piece of surviving gladiatorial equipment from Britain,” Dr Richard Hobbs tells History Hit’s Tristan Hughes, who heads behind the scenes at the British Museum for a special look at the exhibition ‘Gladiators of Britain’ which tours in 2025-2026.

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The ‘Hawkedon helmet’ is an extraordinary relic of Roman Britain. It may date from the period immediately following the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD. It is similar to helmets identified in Pompeii, and was probably not made in Britain.

It features a broad neck guard and brow ridge, with rivet holes that would match a visor. The brass was possibly tinned, which means it would have shone almost like gold and silver in the sun.

The helmet and other objects including a gladiator figurine, oil lamp shaped like a gladiator’s helmet and a coin depicting the Colosseum feature in a History Hit film presented by Tristan Hughes.

A bone figurine of a gladiator found in Colchester forms, alongside over 10 identified amphitheatres, evidence of gladiators in Britain. For a time Colchester was the capital of Roman Britain.

A figurine of a gladiator carved from bone.

Image Credit: History Hit

“When Britain became part of the Empire, it brought with it all those things that we associate with Rome, the games being part of that,” explains curator Dr Richard Hobbs.

The figurine depicts a heavily-armed murmillo type gladiator. He wields a shield which itself depicts a gladiator defeating opponents, and either a short sword (gladius) or palm frond.

Another item, a bronze coin (sestertius) provides a fascinating contemporary look at the Colosseum in Rome. It is bigger and thicker than a British 2 pence, and on its face depicts the legendary’s arena’s three levels of arcades and its top level.

Its detail is fine. Not only can you spot small statues on the Colosseum, but also two gladiators in combat in the arena itself.

A coin depicting the Colosseum in Rome.

Image Credit: History Hit

“You can see where all of these little sticks are pointing out,” explains curator Dr Anna Willi. “These are wooden poles that held the awnings that could have been put on on a hot day and they were operated by soldiers from the Roman fleet.”

Why is the Colosseum on a coin? A similar coin was issued when the amphitheatre was inaugurated by emperor Titus in 80 AD. But this coin was issued in 223 AD by Severus Alexander, whose portrait is on the reverse of the coin. He had completed repairs on the Colosseum after it had been struck by lightning and damaged. This coin celebrated his work. He is even inserted as a small figure standing beside the arena.

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In History Hit documentary Rome’s Disaster, Tristan Hughes heads to Germany to investigate some of the worst days in Roman military history which unfolded in 9 AD. At the Varus Battle Museum, named for the humbled Roman commander, Tristan gets hands-on with archaeology from the battle.

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As the Romans fell, the battle sites were looted by their attackers who picked the fields for valuables. Fortunately for us, some Roman artefacts were left behind.

“We have about 5-6,000 Roman finds, 2,000 coins, a lot of bones,” explains museum managing director Stefan Burmeister.

“We have recovered about an area of 50 square kilometres. Most finds come from the core area here in the museum park. We do a lot of excavations and every time we open the soil, it’s like a spring. Things come up.”

Among the human remains is the top of a human skull with a large hole and indications of a mortal sword blow. Their identity, however, remains anonymous – for now.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

“We have lots of bones. Of course, we know they are all male, very strong stature, between 20 and 40 years of age. We just started a genomic project, and perhaps in one or two years time, we will know more about the ancestry and if they come as Romans or come from the Mediterranean, or if it’s a Germanic warrior.”

Getting closer to the Battle of Teutoburg

Despite lacking concrete proof that the area near the museum was the site of the famous battle, there is good evidence.

“We have lots of coins, 2,000 coins, and they all tell a story and they bring us close to the event,” says Burmeister.

One coin in particular, made from copper and perhaps the value of a glass of wine, displays a unique counter-stamp.

“This is the Varus counter-stamp. It’s a V-A-R. And this was stamped in the time when Varus was commander of the Legion of the Rhine. So this must have been stamped in the years 7 to 9 AD.”

Other, more precious, personal items have also been recovered from the battlefield, including two golden finger rings with high quality, semi-precious stones. Both depict mythological themes. One depicts Silenus, a god of drunkenness, and the other the winged horse Pegasus.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

These styles of rings were worn by Roman men and women. In modern terms, however, these rings correspond to the smallest female sizes.

“We know that in the baggage train, the soldiers had their families with them, women and children,” explains Burmeister. “And I think with these two rings, we have good evidence of these families accompanying the army.”

Not only were these rings originally crafted for someone originating from thousands of miles away. They highlight how women and children were present at the battle as well as fighting men. The rings also suggest that they got caught up in the carnage, too.

“They were caught, perhaps killed, we don’t know,” says Burmeister. “In the bones we only have men. We know from other historians that 30-40 years later, the Romans bought the last survivors.”

From human remains to gold rings, the archaeology unearthed at Kalkriese is providing a huge range of information about the battle. But perhaps one artefact personifies this massacre more than any other.

A Roman cavalry mask made from iron and coated in silver and depicting a human face, used more for parades than actual battle, is a unique survivor from Teutoburg. We’ll never know what happened to the Roman who wore the mask, but more likely than not he suffered a similar fate to many of his comrades, either killed or captured by the Germans during the later stages of this battle.

Watch Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest by signing up to History Hit.

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