Margaret J. Winkler was a trailblazer who recognised the potential of animation as a storytelling medium and played a pivotal role in bringing animated content to a broader audience. As the leading distributor of animated cartoons in the 1920s (and indeed the only female leader in this male-dominated world), her company, M. J. Winkler Productions, distributed and financed several of the most significant animated series of the period.

In 1923, Margaret Winkler agreed to produce and distribute Alice Comedies, a new series by Walt Disney. That contract is considered the founding document of The Walt Disney Company. The foundation she helped lay became the bedrock upon which The Walt Disney Company built its empire.

Here we take a look at Winkler’s pivotal role in the professionalisation of the animation industry, and her integral role in Disney’s story.

Early career

Margaret Winkler was born in Hungary in 1895 and moved to New York City as a child. She was aged 18 when she began her career in entertainment as the personal secretary for studio executive Harry M. Warner – one of the founders of Warner Brothers. Warner Brothers was strictly a film distributor through most of the silent era, and Harry Warner was the man who made the deals.

Harry Warner, one of the founders of Warner Bros., on page 735 of the 8 February 1919 ‘Moving Picture World’.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Moving Picture World / Public Domain

In 1917, Warner Brothers began distributing cartoons of Mutt and Jeff in New York and New Jersey. Through working with Warner and attending conventions, Winkler gained considerable knowledge and experience in film distribution through the nationwide network of film exchanges and the process of selling state rights

Warner also recognised Winkler’s aptitude for business, and when Max and Dave Fleischer (owners of Fleischer Studios), came to him with their Out of the Inkwell series, he suggested Winkler handle its distribution.

Creation of M. J. Winkler Productions

Winkler’s responsibilities expanded from distributing to producing. In 1921 when she was aged 26, Warner encouraged her to start her own company to produce and distribute animated cartoons – a time when the industry was still in its infancy and reliable distribution channels were key.

Disguising her gender, Winkler named her company ‘M. J. Winkler Productions’ – an important professional tactic at a time when discrimination could lead partners to disregard or underestimate her business ability. While a number of trade press articles referred to her as “Miss Winkler”, her directly-placed advertisements typically only referred to the company name, as did the cartoon title cards. 

In late 1921, Winker signed a contract with Pat Sullivan Productions to distribute a standalone series of Felix the Cat cartoons. These were already one of the most popular features of the Paramount Magazine reel, but thanks to Winkler’s talent for identifying and building a market for them, this standalone series made Felix the most famous cartoon character of the 1920s worldwide. Within months of the first instalment’s availability, Winkler had sold the series on a state-rights basis across much of America.

Promotional poster for Felix the Cat, 1924

Image Credit: Alamy / SilverScreen

Winkler’s strategic business practices included promoting her successful sales in trade press. This marketed the cartoon to exhibitors but also created a perception of the series’ popularity and scarcity.

Securing prestigious first-run venues for Felix also garnered attention from industry figures, enabling further widespread promotion. Winkler also capitalised on Felix’s popularity through tie-in arrangements, including soft toy dolls and a syndicated coloured comic supplement, setting the series apart from other cartoons of the time.

In 1922 Winkler gained another contract to distribute the Out of the Inkwell series for Fleischer Studios – cementing her reputation as the cartoon world’s top distributor. After this, a number of trade press articles addressed her unusual status as a female distributor. However, by the end of the year, the Fleischer brothers, flushed with success as a result of Winkler’s work, left to form their own distribution company, Red Seal Pictures.

Meanwhile, although the Felix the Cat cartoons helped Winkler’s business, producer Pat Sullivan and Winkler were constantly bickering over his unrealistic demands.

Signing Disney

Winkler was therefore particularly open to a pilot reel, Alice’s Wonderland (1923), submitted to her by a fledgling yet ambitious animator called Walt Disney.

Recognising Disney’s talent and innovative approach to animation, Winkler struck a deal with Disney, signing a year-long 12 episode contract to distribute a series of short films called the Alice Comedies, despite the fact that the small animation studio, ‘Laugh-O-Gram Studio’, who made the cartoon was now nearly bankrupt. These films featured a live-action girl interacting with an animated world, creating a unique and captivating blend of live-action and animation that intrigued Winkler.

This collaboration would mark the beginning of a partnership that would significantly impact the future of animation.

Left: Poster representing the ‘Alice Comedies’ films, Winkler Pictures 1925. Right: Poster for ‘Alice the Peacemaker’, 1924.

Image Credit: Left: Wikimedia Commons / Winkler Pictures / Public Domain. Right: Wikimedia Commons / Disney Brothers Studios / Public Domain

Disney subsequently formed a new studio, ‘Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio’, on 16 October 1923 (the first cartoon studio in Hollywood), and soon changed its name to ‘Walt Disney Productions’. Under the tutelage of Winkler (who insisted on editing all of the Alice Comedies herself), Disney fulfilled the terms of their contract. It’s thought that Walt Disney would not have been able to make the Alice films without his contract with Winkler due to the financial return it guaranteed.

Winkler’s contract with Disney stated that their cartoons needed to be produced in a ‘high-class manner…and satisfactory to the Distributor’, and Winkler regularly pushed Disney to improve the quality and timeliness of their films.

One of Winkler’s suggestions was the addition of a suspiciously Felix-like character called Julius. This was the last straw for Pat Sullivan, who then signed Felix the Cat with a rival distributor, ‘Educational Pictures’ in 1925.

Winkler’s role and experience as a distributor was pivotal in bringing Disney’s creations to a wider audience. Her keen business sense enabled her to navigate the complex landscape of the film industry, securing deals that allowed Disney’s work to be seen by more people. Winkler’s understanding of the needs of exhibitors also shaped the production practices of animation studios, implementing the business practices used for the Felix the Cat series in the distribution of the Disney cartoons.

The success of the Alice Comedies led to a growing demand for Disney’s animation, and Winkler and Disney continued their collaboration, creating more innovative and entertaining content.

Marriage and later support of Disney

In November 1923, Margaret Winkler married Charles B. Mintz, another distributor who she had met during their time at Warner Brothers and who had been brought on to Winkler’s production company as a business partner in 1922. 

As an independent distributor with savvy marketing expertise, Winkler had demonstrated the economic viability and potential of animated cartoons. Ironically, this helped exclude her from the industry as – like most American woman of the time – after her marriage, Winkler’s involvement in the business declined. By 1926 she retired from the film industry following the birth of their two children, Katherine and William, turning her now-established company over to her husband.

Mintz began demanding lower budgets and increased production from Walt Disney, marking a shift in their working relationship. 1927 saw Disney’s new fully-animated short series, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, debut to the public, but although Winkler had played a role negotiating the initial deal along with Mintz, significantly she now had little other involvement.

As the series gained popularity, tensions arose between Disney and Mintz over creative control and financial matters, and Disney discovered that he had lost the rights to Oswald due to legal loopholes in the contract. 

Amidst this turmoil, Winkler continued to support Disney. Recognising his talent and determination, she encouraged him to develop a new character. Walt Disney had conceived the idea of a new character, Mickey Mouse, during a train ride from New York to Los Angeles, and Winkler, understanding its potential, stood by him to help secure a distribution deal for the new series.

In 1928, Steamboat Willie premiered (Disney’s first film with sound), introducing the world to Mickey Mouse and marking the beginning of a new era in animation. Its success was unprecedented, catapulting Disney into the forefront of the entertainment industry with the character becoming a cultural phenomenon. Winkler’s role in navigating the aftermath of the Oswald incident and supporting Disney’s transition to Mickey Mouse cannot be overstated.

Screenshot from ‘Steamboat Willie’

Image Credit: Fair use, The Walt Disney Company

The success of Mickey Mouse laid the groundwork for Disney’s future endeavours, including the creation of other iconic characters like Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto. Although no longer involved, Winkler’s influence persisted, with the lessons learned during their early collaboration with Winkler shaping Disney’s approach to storytelling, character development, and animation techniques.

Legacy

Margaret J. Winkler died aged 95 on 21 June 1990 in Mamaroneck, New York.

While Winkler’s contributions to Disney’s success are often overshadowed by the legacy of Walt Disney himself, her role as a pioneering distributor, negotiator, and supporter of innovative talent cannot be ignored. In the male-dominated industry of the early 20th century, Winkler broke barriers and played a crucial role in the evolution of animation as an art form and a lucrative profitable business, as well as a vital part of film worldwide.

As Disney continued to grow, diversify, and shape the entertainment landscape, the lessons learned from their early partnership with Winkler – resilience during challenging times, the importance of creative control, and the significance of iconic characters – remain ingrained in the company’s DNA.

Her profound impact on popular culture is evident in the enduring popularity of her films, and alongside her numerous awards for her acting prowess (she is one of few entertainers who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy and Tony Awards), Hepburn’s timeless style, epitomised by her iconic “little black dress” in Breakfast At Tiffany’s, continues to inspire fashion trends.

However Audrey Hepburn’s most important legacy extends far beyond her cinematic achievements to the lives of the countless individuals touched by her compassion and dedication to her humanitarian work with UNICEF.

Here we explore more about the life of this Hollywood icon.

Early life

Audrey Kathleen Hepburn-Ruston (later known as Audrey Hepburn) was born on 4 May 1929 in Brussels to Joseph Victor Anthony Ruston, an English banker, and Ella van Heemstra, a Dutch baroness. Her parents had been members of the British Union of Fascists in the 1930’s, and had toured Germany, attending events alongside figures like the Mitford sisters, including the Nuremberg rallies.

Audrey’s early childhood was divided between Belgium, England, and the Netherlands. Following her parents separation when she was aged 6, Audrey moved to Arnhem in the Netherlands with her mother, though attended boarding school in Kent from 1936-1939. (After their divorce, Hepburn’s father became deeply involved in Fascist activities, and was later imprisoned in Britain during the war as an enemy of the state after receiving seed money to start a newspaper from Germans with ties to Joseph Goebbels.)

After Britain declared war on Germany, Hepburn’s mother moved Audrey back to Arnhem, hoping the Netherlands would remain neutral and be spared a German attack.

German paratroops dropping into the Netherlands on 10 May 1940

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Dutch National Archives / CC BY-SA 3.0 nl

Aiding the Dutch resistance

Audrey was aged 11 when the Nazi’s invaded the Netherlands in 1940. She witnessed the transportation of Dutch Jews to concentration camps, and along with the Dutch population, her family faced severe restrictions and shortages of basic necessities under the harsh Nazi occupation.

In 1942, Hepburn’s uncle was executed in retaliation for a resistance-led sabotage act. Audrey’s half-brother Ian was deported to a Nazi labour camp in Berlin, compelling her other half-brother Alex to go into hiding; Audrey’s family went to live with her grandfather in Velp. These events transformed her mother Ella’s perspective on the Nazis, prompting her to become an active supporter of the resistance.

Audrey found solace in her passion for dance, continuing her training at the Arnhem Conservatory during the war. Using the name Edda van Heemstra (to hide her English-sounding name), Audrey gave dance fundraising performances at zwarte avonden (‘black evenings’) – illegal musical performances at various invitation-only locations (often houses), which raised funds for the Dutch resistance.

Whilst not directly involved in the resistance herself, Audrey volunteered for local resistance leader Dr Hendrik Visser’t Hooft, distributing underground newspapers, aiding downed Allied pilots, and volunteering at a hospital central to resistance activities. Her family’s home even became a temporary refuge for a British paratrooper during the Battle of Arnhem.

Further impact of World War Two

Following the D-Day landings, living conditions in the Netherlands deteriorated, initially from the heavy damage inflicted during Operation Market Garden, and later during the 1944-45 Dutch famine, when the Nazis retaliated against Dutch railway strikes by diminishing the already limited civilian food and fuel supplies.

Like countless others, Audrey faced extreme hunger during this period. Her family resorted to consuming nettles, and tulip bulbs ground into flour. Audrey’s slender figure, envied later in her life, was the result of this severe malnutrition.

After the war Audrey fell seriously ill. Her mother’s appeal to a former lover in the British army brought salvation when he sent cigarettes, which Ella then sold on the black market in order to obtain penicillin, saving Audrey’s life.

The liberation and her early career

Hepburn’s wartime experiences instilled in her a deep sense of empathy and fervent desire to make a positive impact. After the liberation of the Netherlands in 1945, she pursued her passion for ballet (which contributed to her elegant demeanour on screen), training under Sonia Gaskell in Amsterdam, and later through a scholarship with Ballet Rambert in London from 1948. After being told that her height and weak constitution would make becoming a prima ballerina unattainable, she decided to venture into acting.

Audrey found regular work dancing and acting in revue in London’s West End. While performing in Sauce Piquante, she was spotted by the Ealing Studios casting director, and took on minor film roles. In 1951, while shooting a small role in Monte Carlo Baby, Audrey was spotted in the foyer of Monte Carlo’s Hotel de Paris by French novelist Colette, who cast her in the title role of the Broadway adaptation of her novel Gigi. She received glowing reviews.

Left: Hepburn in a screen test for Roman Holiday (1953). Right: Audrey Hepburn during ballet rehearsal for the film ‘Funny Face’ (1956).

Image Credit: Left: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain. Right: Flickr - 'fred baby' / David Seymour / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

Breakthrough and stardom

Following Gigi’s success, Audrey was cast as Princess Ann in William Wyler’s Roman Holiday (1953). The film’s box-office success catapulted her to fame, earning her an Academy Award, BAFTA and Golden Globe, and establishing her as a star. She won a Tony Award for Best Actress the same year, for Ondine (where she met her husband Mel Ferrer).

Audrey’s charm, style and captivating smile endeared her to audiences, and she was signed to a 7-film contract with Paramount. Her collaborations with legendary directors such as Billy Wilder, Blake Edwards, and Stanley Donen showcased her versatility and ability to seamlessly transition between comedic and dramatic roles, and her performances were marked by a unique blend of vulnerability and strength, making her characters relatable and endearing.

While subsequent roles in films such as Sabrina (1954) and Funny Face (1957) highlighted her acting prowess, it was her defining role as free spirit Holly Golightly in the film adaptation of Truman Capote’s novel Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961) that solidified Audrey Hepburn’s Hollywood icon status (and her fourth Oscar nomination). Her character’s famous “little black dress”, accessorised with a statement pearl necklace and oversized sunglasses, became one of the most iconic clothing items of the 20th century and film history, and an emblem of timeless elegance and glamour, synonymous with Hepburn herself.

Left: Audrey Hepburn in the trailer for Truman Capote’s ‘Breakfast at Tiffany’s’. Right: Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961 poster)

Image Credit: Both: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Following the success of films such as Charade (1963), Hepburn sparked controversy when she was picked to play Eliza Doolittle in the film version of My Fair Lady (1964), beating Julie Andrews, who had originated the role on Broadway. Hepburn gained her fifth Oscar nomination for Wait Until Dark (1967), produced by her then-husband, Mel Ferrer (filmed on the brink of their divorce). Shortly after, Hepburn left full-time acting to prioritise her family, though continued to appear in films sporadically, notably in Robin and Marian (1976), and as an angel in Steven Spielberg’s Always (1989) – her final film appearance.

Style

Hepburn’s style and distinctive look differed from the prevalent curvaceous and more sexual ‘feminine ideal’ body shapes of stars at the time such as Elizabeth Taylor. Alongside model Twiggy, Hepburn contributed to making slimness fashionable, and her short hairstyle and thick eyebrows offered a more accessible and relatable look for young women.

Hepburn favoured simple silhouettes, often opting for monochromatic hues and occasional statement accessories. She formed a life-long friendship with renowned French fashion designer Givenchy, who designed many of her on-screen costumes including her iconic dress for Breakfast at Tiffany’s, as well as her haute-couture outfits at public appearances.

Personal life

Following her acting retirement, Hepburn primarily resided in Switzerland. After divorcing Mel Ferrer in 1968 (with whom she had a son), a year later, she married Italian psychiatrist Andrea Dotti, and they had a son together. However, infidelity resulted in another divorce in 1982, after which Hepburn embarked on a relationship with Dutch actor Robert Wolders in 1980.

Humanitarian work

Hepburn had narrated two radio programmes for UNICEF in the 1950s, re-telling children’s war stories. Having experienced the hardships of war firsthand, Audrey dedicated a significant portion of her life to helping those in need, maintaining a lasting partnership with the organisation. She was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador for UNICEF in 1989.

Audrey Hepburn in the Netherlands at the Danny Kaye Award, 28 September 1989

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Dutch National Archives / Rob Bogaerts, Anefo / Public Domain

In her role, Audrey travelled to numerous countries, witnessing the dire conditions faced by children and families. Her eloquent and tireless advocacy (including addressing the US Congress) was instrumental in raising awareness and funds for crucial humanitarian initiatives, including vaccination programmes, clean water projects, and education initiatives, and she earned the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1992.

Shortly after a UNICEF trip to Somalia in 1992, Hepburn was diagnosed with colon cancer. She continued her travel and UNICEF work, but died on 20 January 1993 at her home near Lausanne, Switzerland, aged 63. Numerous charities have since been founded in her memory to continue fundraising for the causes important to her, leaving a powerful legacy beyond her iconic cinematic achievements.

Chaplin was an immigrant, an innovator, and a rags to riches American Dream archetype, yet also used his comedy and platform to be a political rebel, to speak out metaphorically and sometimes literally about the state of American society, McCarthyism, Fascism and Capitalism.

Chaplin’s complex character – brilliant but a megalomaniac with a disturbing penchant for very young, sometimes underage actresses – later became the obsession of J Edgar Hoover, the first Director of the FBI. Hoover was determined to get rid of him for his alleged communist sympathies, using Chaplin’s turbulent love life to file a case against him.

What prompted J Edgar Hoover to be so interested in this Hollywood icon?

Charlie Chaplin’s fame

Charlie Chaplin’s natural charisma, eye for business and innovative writing, acting, directing and composing talent had quickly led him to stardom. His rise to fame coincided with the ‘Golden Age of Hollywood‘ – a period of great growth, experimentation and change in the industry that brought international prestige to Hollywood and its movie stars. From the silent movie age to ‘talkie’ dramas and comedies, films became popular nationwide and soon, movie stars such as Chaplin, the Marx Brothers and Tallulah Bankhead were adored everywhere.

While working with Keystone Studios, Chaplin developed his iconic character, the Tramp. With his instantly recognisable moustache and baggy trousers, the Tramp quickly became the most popular star, and Chaplin continued to play the character in numerous short films and feature-length productions.

‘A Dog’s Life’ (1918). It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as a sad clown.

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1917, Chaplin became an independent producer, establishing his own Hollywood studio and gaining creative freedom. During World War One, he did a national tour on behalf of the war effort, and also made a hit comedy about war called Shoulder Arms (1918).

In 1919 Chaplin joined forces with Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D. W. Griffith to found the United Artists Corporation, and released a series of successful films including The Kid (1921), The Gold Rush (1928) (earning Chaplin’s first Academy Award), and City Lights (1931).

Chaplin’s The Great Dictator speech

During the politically uncertain inter-war years, Charlie Chaplin faced criticism for his political sympathies, including advocating for an alliance with the Soviet Union and supporting New Deal Programs.

Chaplin was deeply troubled by the rise of fascism in Europe. By then, Chaplin was one of the world’s most famous performers, and in 1940, released his most famous film to date, political satire The Great Dictator (1940). Chaplin plays both the central characters: a Jewish barber living in a ghetto, and Hynkel, the fascist dictator of Tomainia. The dictator is a clear attack on, and comical mimicry of, Adolf Hitler.

Despite receiving great support or rampant criticism, the film is widely considered to be the greatest satire ever made and often cited as one of the finest films ever produced.

Chaplin as Adenoid Hynkel

Image Credit: Trailer screenshot, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Chaplin’s social commentary

Politically, it seems fairly clear that Chaplin sympathised with the Left, and much of his social commentary in public and private tackled things like rampant unemployment, poverty and the rise of the radical Right in America and around the world. His iconic character, The Tramp, symbolised the struggles of a downtrodden man in a capitalist society, reflecting his compassion for the working-class – a defining feature of his most famous silent films.

These views raised suspicion from the FBI, particularly due to Chaplin’s statements expressing admiration for the Communists’ rigid anti-fascist stance, exemplified in the Spanish Civil War or on the Eastern Front during the Second World War. Despite not identifying as a Communist, his views on Communism were most directly outlined when he said in December 1942, “I am not a Communist, but I am proud to say that I feel pretty pro-Communist” – sentiments further heightening the scrutiny he faced from authorities.

Monsieur Verdoux and communist accusations

During World War Two, Chaplin had campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He maintained friendships with individuals suspected of being communists, and attended functions hosted by Soviet diplomats.

Chaplin remained steadfast in his refusal to compromise on his views, and never apologised for his associations, such as his friend the Austrian musician Hanns Eisler.

In his film, Monsieur Verdoux (1947), Chaplin openly criticised capitalism, and highlighted the destructive nature of wars and weapons of mass destruction. The film was met with controversy, and received calls for boycott, prompting Monsieur Verdoux to be the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in America (despite Chaplin’s screenplay nomination at the Academy Awards).

The Red Scare

During the Cold War, Charlie Chaplin’s progressive activities and alleged ties to communism made him a target of the era’s anti-communist fervour.

The FBI launched an investigation into Chaplin in 1947, following public accusations of his communist leanings and his involvement in political protests against the trials of Communist Party members and the House Un-American Activities Committee (which denounced him that year). Once saying “These days if you step off the curb with your left foot, they accuse you being a communist”, Chaplin denied the allegations, feeling that the government’s effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties.

As early as 1922, the FBI had been interested in Chaplin, investigating his alleged connections to the American Communist Party. They closely monitored his personal life, exhaustively interviewing his associates and colleagues to find any connection between him and Communist ideology – leading to accusations of violating the White Slave Traffic Act of 1910 due to his financial support of his girlfriend’s travel across state lines.

Chaplin’s extensive FBI file, filled with slander and innuendo, spanned 1,900 pages, and his films Modern Times (1936) and The Great Dictator (1940) were interpreted as sympathetic to communist ideologies.

‘Exile’ and later life

In 1952, Charlie Chaplin released his film Limelight, a serious and semi-autobiographical work set in Edwardian London. Chaplin decided to hold the film’s premiere in London and boarded the RMS Queen Elizabeth with his family to attend the event on 18 September 1952. However, the US Attorney General then revoked Chaplin’s re-entry permit, demanding an interview about his political views and moral behaviour before allowing him back into the country.

Although the US government lacked concrete evidence to prevent Chaplin’s re-entry, Chaplin chose to sever his ties with America – effectively ending his Hollywood career. He only returned once, to attend the Oscars in 1972, where he was hailed as a returning hero. 

Chaplin settled in Switzerland, and his final years were largely spent editing his old films for re-release. In 1975, he received a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II. While he worked on new projects, a series of strokes and his declining health in the 1970s took its toll, and he died on Christmas Day in 1977, having left an enduring legacy in the world of cinema.

Here are some popular TV and film depictions of this historic country:

The Ten Commandments (1956)

Starring Charlton Heston as Moses, this epic biblical drama tells the story of the struggle of the Hebrews against their Egyptian oppressors, culminating in the miraculous parting of the Red Sea in the Exodus from Egypt. Directed by Cecil B. DeMille, the film offers a grand and majestic portrayal of ancient Egypt, from the towering pyramids of Giza to the luxurious palaces of the pharaohs.

The filmmakers consulted historical texts from the time as well as many other books, and the Bible, to make the film as accurate as possible. The film was actually filmed in Egypt, specifically Mount Sinai and the Sinai Peninsula, and is considered culturally, aesthetically, and historically significant depiction of ancient Egypt.

With its grand scale, attention to detail, lavish sets and memorable performances, The Ten Commandments became one of the highest-grossing films of its time, celebrated for its visually stunning depiction of this historic civilisation.

Cleopatra (1963)

This lavish historical epic tells the captivating story of the legendary queen of Egypt, and her tumultuous relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, the film famously features Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra, Rex Harrison as Julius Caesar, and Richard Burton as Mark Antony.

Spanning over four hours, the film portrays the political manoeuvrings, alliances, and romantic entanglements that shaped Cleopatra’s life and Egypt’s fate. The film delves into the complex dynamics between the characters involved, exploring both the clash between the powerful Roman Empire and the Egyptian civilisation, and Cleopatra’s relationships as both alliances of convenience and genuine love affairs. Romance was not confined to the historical characters – during filming, it was reported that co-stars Taylor and Richard Burton had an adulterous affair, making headlines worldwide.

Richard Burton as Mark Antony with Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra, in the 1963 film, ‘Cleopatra’.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Courier-Gazette, McKinney, TX Photo from 20th Century Fox, producer of the film / Public Domain

The film showcases the opulence of ancient Egypt, with stunning sets, sweeping vistas, lavish costumes, and elaborate production design. From the bustling streets of Alexandria to the majestic palaces along the Nile, Egypt’s landscapes and architectural wonders are brought to life in stunning detail, reflecting the power, beauty, and exoticism associated with Cleopatra’s reign.

The estimated production costs totalled $31 million – the most expensive film ever made up to that point – nearly bankrupting the studio, yet Cleopatra received huge critical acclaim, winning 4 Academy Awards.

Agatha Christie’s Death on the Nile (1978)

Agatha Christie’s Death on the Nile (published in 1937) is among her most famous novels, and is brought to life in this classic film featuring Peter Ustinov as the famous detective Hercule Poirot.

The dramatic events of the murder mystery take place aboard a luxury steamer sailing down the River Nile, against the backdrop of some of Egypt’s most captivating stunning sites. Secrets and motives unravel, leading to a suspenseful, thrilling, and twist-filled climax. The film beautifully showcases the picturesque desert landscapes and iconic landmarks of Egypt, which along with the film’s intricate plot and stellar cast, make Death on the Nile highly engaging and atmospheric.

(Christie’s famous book was again turned into a film in 2022. Directed by Kenneth Branagh and starring Branagh and Tom Bateman as Hercule Poirot and Bouc respectively, the film had a star-studded ensemble cast. Delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the film was perceived as inferior to the 1978 adaptation, yet still made a substantial profit, displaying Egypt’s historic landscapes once more.)

The ship ‘Sudan’, formerly Karnak, which features in Death on the Nile.

Image Credit: Michael Gwyther-Jones via Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0

Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)

Egypt serves as a key setting in this famous film. Directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Harrison Ford, the film showcases iconic Egyptian landmarks including the bustling streets of Cairo, the towering pyramids, and the Temple of the Well of Souls.

From camel rides through the desert to thrilling chase sequences, Egypt’s depiction in Raiders of the Lost Ark adds an exciting and visually stunning backdrop to the action-packed narrative, immersing viewers in a world of archaeological exploration, ancient history, and intrigue.

Stargate (1994)

In this imaginative portrayal of ancient Egypt, the discovery of an interstellar portal known as the Stargate links Earth to a distant planet with humans resembling ancient Egyptians who worship the god Ra.

Egypt is depicted as a source of advanced alien technology, with Egyptian gods serving as extraterrestrial beings. The film showcases iconic Egyptian symbols, such as hieroglyphics and pharaohs, in a science fiction context, and through its blend of ancient Egyptian aesthetics and futuristic elements, creates an intriguing and visually striking depiction of Egypt.

The Prince of Egypt (1998)

Whilst an animation, The Prince of Egypt offers an engaging portrayal of ancient Egypt, telling the biblical story of Moses and the Exodus, and featuring an all-star voice-cast. Egypt is depicted as a land of grandeur, with magnificent palaces, awe-inspiring temples, and bustling cities, and the film beautifully captures Ancient Egypt’s rich cultural heritage through its stunning animation, and memorable musical sequences.

The Mummy (1999)

This adventurous portrayal of Egypt was actually filmed in Morocco and the UK. However, the film’s visual effects and set designs create a sense of ancient mysticism, with its depictions of mysterious tombs, pyramids and sprawling desert. Directed by Stephen Sommers and starring Brendan Fraser and Rachel Weisz, the film showcases the allure of ancient Egyptian mythology, offering an exciting journey through a fantastical version of Egypt, bringing legends and mysteries to life.

Egypt (2005)

This BBC documentary series, hosted by Egyptologist Dr Joann Fletcher, delves into the history, archaeology, and culture of Ancient Egypt, showcasing the country’s iconic landmarks, archaeological sites and artefacts, unveiling the secrets of its pyramids, tombs, and temples. With stunning visuals, expert interviews, and in-depth analysis, Egypt brings the fascinating civilisation to life, shedding light on its culture, religion, and daily life.

The Pyramids of Giza

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Agora (2009)

This historical drama offers a captivating portrayal of 4th-century Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, where a slave turns to the rising tide of Christianity in the hope of pursuing freedom while falling in love with his mistress, philosophy and mathematics professor Hypatia of Alexandria (played by Rachel Weisz).

From the grand Library of Alexandria to the bustling streets filled with scholars and philosophers, the film showcases Egypt’s cultural and religious diversity of the time. Historic sites and majestic architecture are depicted with attention to detail, providing an authentic backdrop. With its thought-provoking narrative, impressive performances, and captivating visuals, Agora offers a poignant portrayal of a pivotal era, capturing the essence of Egypt’s rich history and significance as a centre of learning.

Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014)

Directed by Ridley Scott, this biblical epic depicts the story of defiant leader Moses (played by Christian Bale) rising up against Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II (Joel Edgerton), and leading 600,000 Israelite slaves to escape Egypt and its terrifying cycle of deadly plagues.

Egypt is portrayed as a land of imposing structures, intricate temples, and vast deserts, and while the film showcases the grandeur of pharaohs and their opulent lifestyles, it also delves into the plagues and epic parting of the Red Sea. Whilst filming primarily occurred in Spain, with its stunning visuals and elaborate production design, Exodus: Gods and Kings offers a visually striking representation of Egypt, capturing the ancient civilisation’s magnitude and awe-inspiring nature.

Despite also starring A-listers including Sigourney Weaver and Ben Kingsley, the film was banned in Egypt and the United Arab Emirates for “historical inaccuracies”, and also drew criticism for its whitewashing.

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In 79 AD, one of the greatest natural disasters in Roman history occurred in southern Italy. Tristan Hughes explores the destruction of Pompeii, using extraordinary eyewitness testimony and the revelations of archaeology to understand what really happened here nearly 2000 years ago.

Crowning Glory: The History of the Coronation

Matt Lewis digs deep into the past to investigate how centuries old aspects of Anglo-Saxon and Medieval coronations will be mirrored in Charles III’s ceremony. To dig deep into the ancient roots of the coronation ceremony, Matt heads to London’s Westminster Abbey and Temple Church, as well as Butser Ancient Farm and Winchester Great Hall, exploring how medieval royal pageantry, some over a thousand years old, still shapes what we will witness in 2023.

American Revolution – Commemorating the Fallen of the Battle of Camden, 1780

Travelling to South Carolina for this special film, Dan Snow investigates some exceptional historic and archaeological discoveries that reveal the course of the American Revolution‘s bloody Battle of Camden, meeting key historians, archaeologists and forensics experts.

The Road to the Crown: Elizabeth I’s Coronation Procession

In this special History Hit film, made to coincide with the coronation of King Charles III, royal historian Tracy Borman goes on a historic journey of just 3 miles, retracing the actual steps of this remarkable procession. It was part celebration and part political statement – Elizabeth’s grip on power was tenuous, and she had to make a powerful statement in front of the people of London.

The young queen spent the day travelling with great ceremony from the fortress of the Tower of London to her palace at Westminster. It was a spectacular parade of power and pageantry as Elizabeth stamped her mark on her reign to come, and London told her exactly what they expected from the new monarch.

The Labouring Lives of Medieval Women

Dr Eleanor Janega investigates one of the least recorded aspects of medieval life – working women. But dig deep and you can find the evidence – proving the medieval period is a fascinating window into the true history of women…and work!

Eleanor takes on the jobs and businesses of real medieval women, from Domina Agnes Ramsey, a highly skilled stonemason with a flourishing business making royal tombs, to Katherine of Bury, a blacksmith plying her trade inside the Tower of London during the Hundred Years’ War.

Queen Victoria’s Favourite – Disraeli and Hughenden

Hughenden, a beautiful house owned by the National Trust, is set deep in the rolling greens of the Buckinghamshire countryside. This was the home of Queen Victoria’s favourite Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli. But Disraeli was so much more than a Queen’s favourite. He was a writer, a performer, a dandy; a friend to some, a rival to others and the man who coined the phrase ‘the greasy pole’. But how did he make his way to the very top?

Buffalo Bill: The Man Behind the Legend

Buffalo Bill was America’s first celebrity… and the most famous man in the world at the turn of the 20th century. But who was Buffalo Bill and how do we separate fact from fiction? Join Don Wildman as he explores the remarkable life of Buffalo Bill and discovers that sometimes the truth really is stranger than fiction.

Fire and Blood: Boudica’s Vengeance

In 60 AD, the fledgling Roman town of Colchester witnessed ancient Armageddon. Thousands of British warriors descended on the settlement, turning what was then the capital of Roman Britain to ash. At the head of these attackers was one of the most well-known figures in British history – the warrior woman Boudica. Her bloody assault on Colchester marked one of the first gruesome events of her revolt against the Romans.

Tristan Hughes investigates the incredible archaeology to see whether it supports the Roman account for Boudica’s bloody sacking of this settlement almost 2,000 years ago.

Anne Boleyn and Katherine of Aragon – Brilliant Rivals

Prof. Suzannah Lipscomb returns to Hever Castle to explore what Anne and Katherine were really like – two well-educated women whose personalities and actions lie at the heart of the upheaval of Henry VIII’s reign. They shape this story – and play just as large a role in it as any of the men.

Hitler vs Stalin: The Battle for Stalingrad

Fought over five months through the bitter Russian Winter, the Battle for Stalingrad served as a turning point in the course of the Second World War and marked a drastic change in the fortunes of the two dictators and the men who fought for them. But how did an industrial city on the banks of the Volga come to play such a decisive role in the course of the Second World War?

In Hitler vs Stalin: The Battle for Stalingrad, historians James Holland, Guy Walters, author of The Lighthouse of Stalingrad Iain MacGregor and Research Fellow Sarah Ashbridge explore the personalities behind the battle to uncover the key moments, decisions and motivations that lead to this decisive moment.

One of the most iconic representations of AI in science fiction is Hal 9000, the sentient computer from the 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey. The sentient computer’s initial cold, logical demeanor which rapidly descends into murderous behaviour has played a pivotal role in how AI has been perceived by the public in the last half-century of popular culture.

However, the idea of artificial intelligence was not born in the modern era. Long before the age of science fiction films and books, humans have been fascinated by the theme of artificial creations that can come to life. 

Its origins can be traced back to Greek mythology

The ancient Greeks had myths about robots, with the earliest concepts of artificial intelligence appearing in Western literature some 3,000 years ago. Some of the first themes of intelligent humanoids and self-moving objects appear in the work of Greek poets Hesiod and Homer, who were alive sometime between 750 and 650 BC.

Talos, first mentioned around 700 B.C. in writings by Hesiod, is one of the earliest depictions of a robot, described as a giant bronze ‘living statue’, built by Hephaestus, the Greek god of invention. He was ordered to guard the island of Crete and would turn into red-hot fire if a stranger approached the island, whilst Homer’s Odyssey includes a pair of robotic silver and gold watchdogs who guard over the palace of Alcinoos and are described as possessing ‘intelligent minds’.

However, it wasn’t until the 19th century that the idea of artificial intelligence as we understand it today began to take a more familiar shape. In 1872 English writer Samuel Butler published a book called Erewhon which explored ideas of artificial intelligence, influenced by Darwin’s recently published On the Origin of Species, and the technological advances of the Industrial Revolution. Then in 1818, Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein introduced the world to the concept of a sentient being created through science, which would become a cornerstone of science fiction literature. 

From Science Fiction to reality

As technology advanced throughout the 20th century, science fiction writers began to explore the darker implications of creating artificial intelligence. One of the earliest examples is Isaac Asimov’s I, Robot series of short stories, which introduced the concept of the Three Laws of Robotics. The stories explored the potential dangers of AI and emphasised the need for ethical guidelines to prevent harm to humans. Whilst Czech playwright Karel Čapek wrote about a factory that manufactured artificial workers in R.U.R., which popularised the word ‘robot’ after his play was staged in America in 1922.

However just after World War Two AI went from fiction to reality thanks to Alan Turing, the British mathematician and code-breaker. In 1948 he mapped out the central concept of AI in a report entitled Intelligent Machinery. He went to to create the Turing test, which is still used today in measuring a machine’s ability to ‘think’ like a human. His work was the biggest influence in developing public awareness of the term ‘artificial intelligence’, which first became popular in the mid-1950s, after Turing died.

A killer supercomputer becomes a film star

It wasn’t until the release of 2001: A Space Odyssey in 1968, produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick, that AI truly entered the public consciousness. It featured Hal 9000, which stands for Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic computer, a sentient system that controlled the operations of a spacecraft on a mission to Jupiter. It went on to become one of the most iconic representations of AI in science fiction, depicted as a sentient being capable of speech, emotion and logical decision-making, with a soothing but somewhat unsettling voice.

As HAL becomes more self-aware it begins to exhibit negative human-like traits, such as jealousy and anger, and its ensuing conflict with the crew and descent into madness points to the dangers of relying too heavily on advanced computer systems. 

Hal 9000 was created in a joint screenplay written between English writer Sir Arthur C. Clarke and Kubrick, whilst his design and behaviour were credited to computer scientist Marvin Minsky, a pioneer in the field of AI research. One of the first electronic learning machines was built by Minsky who worked with Kubrik to define what HAL would look like. Another adviser on the film was Irving John Good, a computer pioneer who had worked alongside Alan Turing at the secretive Bletchley Park in England, where they decrypted intercepted German radio transmissions.

Left: 2D depiction of the interface prop used by Stanley Kubrick in his 1968 movie “2001: A Space Odyssey” to represent AI named Hal. Right: Still from The 1968 Stanley Kubrick film ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ (©Warner Bros).

Image Credit: Left: Wikimedia Commons / Tom Cowap / CC BY-SA 4.0. Right: LANDMARK MEDIA / Alamy Stock Photo

HAL’s Legacy

The legacy of Hal 9000 extends far beyond 2001: A Space Odyssey. The character has become a cultural touchstone, inspiring countless references and parodies in popular media. Hal’s distinctive red eye and monotone voice have become shorthand for malevolent AI in movies, television shows, and video games. The film captures the AI anxiety of the 1960s, when the the world started to become aware that computers would inevitably develop the ability to think and act for themselves.

HAL laid out the blueprint for AI, and the impact of dangerous technology on humanity, in cinema and television. A legacy still seen on screen through films and shows such as Westworld, The Terminator, Blade Runner and Alien.

Erich Maria Remarque’s anti-war novel was published in 1928, and sold 2.5 million copies in its first 18 months, along with being made into another Oscar winning film version in a 1930 release. The phrase ‘All Quiet on the Western Front’, translated from the German ‘Im Westen nichts Neues’ (Nothing New in the West), has become a popular English idiom meaning little is happening.

The screenplay of the 2022 film version won a BAFTA for its adaptation of the novel, but there are some key additions and omissions to the original work. The memoir approach of the novel does not have much of a traditional plot, rather it is a series of vignettes, with the clearest progression being the one by one deaths of Paul’s friends in the trenches.

The Armistice Subplot

A key difference between the two works is that the ‘signing of the armistice’ subplot is completely missing from the novel. In the film, a beaten German political delegation head to Compiegne to push for a reasonable peace, with the French General Staff being less than willing to compromise.

This both gives a sense of the German army collapsing in 1918, and the pointlessness of the war continuing when the politicians are pushing for peace. The book is told completely from Paul’s perspective, and while he does get out of the trenches, the armistice is not mentioned until the final pages, and it is only spoken of near the end through army rumour.

The Homefront

There are two chapters in the novel where Paul returns to Germany for rest and recuperation. The first is on leave, where he also goes on a training course. In the second he is badly injured after an attack and is taken to hospital.

In the book’s home leave he tries to acquaint himself with his family. They are putting on a brave face with food in Germany running low – a consequence of the Royal Navy’s effective blockade of the country. His mother also hides her cancer diagnosis from Paul. Later on in this mid section of the book, Paul goes to a training camp on some moorland and encounters starving Russian prisoners.

The second homefront scene well illustrates the faltering conditions in Germany’s wartime hospitals. This is illustrated to some degree in the film through the horrendous blood washed sanatorium where both Tjaden and Katcinzky meet their demise. In the book Paul is taken back to Germany, while in the film he remains near the front.

Timing

While both the novel and the film are set in the later years of the war, most of the film’s action occurs in late 1918, when the German army was collapsing. The book is far more spread out, which allows for the return of Paul to the home front, as well as a brief romantic tryst he has with a French girl. In the film version, near the start of the 1918 part, one of his companions deserts with a French family.

The Horror of War: Coffin Shelling vs Tanks and Flamethrowers

The most shocking part of the book is when Paul’s unit find themselves under heavy shelling in a graveyard, and are forced to take cover amongst decomposing remains and coffins. This would be so gruesome on film that audiences might find it gratuitous, yet it is an appallingly powerful moment in the novel.

The midpoint of the Oscar winning film is one of the greatest war scenes of all time.

Image Credit: Netflix

The film is not, however, short of horrific moments. The most memorable is the stunning attack sequence about midway through, which shows the see-saw nature of attack and counterattack that infantry had to endure. It is possibly the greatest war scene in the history of cinema. Within it a man is horribly crushed by a tank, hundreds of men are cut down, and Paul’s friend Albert is brutally burned with a flamethrower. Paul then ends the battle in a shell hole where he kills a French soldier hand to hand – this scene is very similar in the book and film.

The Main Villain

The antagonist in the film version is the out of touch Prussian General Friedrichs, who pointlessly sends the broken company to their deaths on the very day of the Armistice. He works as a device to explain the disconnect between regular soldiers and the officer class, if perhaps a little blatantly.

In the book the antagonist is the furious parade ground Corporal Himmelstoss, who reflects the ludicrousness of the military regimen in basic training. The ex postman assumes an autocratic authority over the recruits, putting them through numerous absurd punishments for alleged disrespect.

The Ending

If I had one complaint about the 2022 film of All Quiet on the Western Front, it was the slightly over stylised ending. It is firstly somewhat unclear why Paul and Kat would risk their lives to attempt to steal a goose again given they know the war is coming to an end very soon. Meanwhile, the boy who shoots Kat comes out of nowhere. This isn’t in the book, although Katcinzky does die of a similarly small wound close to the end.

The final attack is also a little bit far into Hollywood territory. The German army was at the point of complete breakdown by the day of the Armistice, with thousands of men deserting every day. If a company of armed men were to receive such a ludicrous order from a General, then they could well have shot him and simply walked away from the battlefield. To give it credit though, it does lead to a high octane conclusion which reiterates the pointlessness of it all. Essentially, more men die to satisfy the nationalistic vanities of General Friedrichs.

In the book, Paul dies similarly late in the war, although not on the final day. The final paragraphs of the novel provide a nihilistic level of heartbreak:

He fell in October, 1918, on a day that was so quiet and still on the whole front, that the army report confined itself to the single sentence: All quiet on the Western Front.

He had fallen forward and lay on the earth as though sleeping. Turning him over one saw that he could not have suffered long; his face had an expression of calm, as though almost glad the end had come.

Born in New York City, Kubrick started out as a photographer before moving into directing short documentaries. His first feature films were produced on a shoestring budget; however, it wasn’t long until the young filmmaker moved into directing films such as the epic Spartacus (1960) and the controversial Lolita (1952). Classics such as The Shining (1980) and Full Metal Jacket (1987) followed, and remain some of his most studied, beloved work.

Though most of his films received mixed reviews upon their first release, Kubrick’s work earned him Golden Globe, BAFTA and Academy Award wins. In spite of his fame, Kubrick became increasingly reclusive towards the end of his life, and died shortly after wrapping on the filming of Eyes Wide Shut (1999).

Here’s a breakdown of 10 of Stanley Kubrick’s key films, in chronological order.

1956

The Killing

Kubrick’s notes from The Killing. From the Stanley Kubrick exhibit at Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

Image Credit: William Beutler from Washinton, DC, USA / Wikimedia Commons

Filmed when he was just 27 years old, Kubrick’s third film The Killing is a visually snappy heist noir starring Sterling Hayden as a career criminal assembling a team of thieves for a race-track robbery before he retires. Owing to union regulations, Kubrick had to hire a separate cinematographer, and Oscar-winning Lucien Ballard was chosen. The pair clashed extensively on set. Nonetheless, the film marked a huge leap in quality for the films for the director, and went on to inspire many modern heist movies such as Reservoir Dogs, Ocean’s Eleven and Logan Lucky.

1957

Paths of Glory

Though this war film would later be overshadowed by his later work via Full Metal Jacket, it remains an effective and moving portrayal of bureaucracy and injustice during World War One. The camera follows Kirk Douglas around the trenches, while the famous battlefield tracking shot positions it as an early influence for films such as Saving Private Ryan. The film’s intensely tough, anti-war portrayal meant that it was banned in France until 1975.

1962

Lolita

Lolita was the first of Kubrick’s films to earn him a reputation for controversy. An adaptation of Vladimir Nabokov’s equally unsettling novel, which is written from the perspective of a child sexual predator, the film was a tricky sell for distributors. Nonetheless, James Mason is perfectly creepy as Humbert Humbert, the academic who is attracted to teenage Dolores Haze, played by Sue Lyon. The film is often cited as Kubrick’s first ‘mature’ feature.

1964

Dr. Strangelove Or: How I Learned To Stop Worrying And Love the Bomb

Production photo of director Stanley Kubrick on the set of the 1964 film Dr. Strangelove, 1963.

Image Credit: "Copyright © 1963, Columbia Pictures" / Wikimedia Commons

Though Kubrick originally optioned a political drama film adaptation of Cold War novel Red Alert, he realised that the subject matter was better suited for black comedy. The film revolves around a general setting a nuke for the Soviet Union and generals in the war room manically attempting to stop the nuclear strike and world mass destruction. Strangelove’s many quotable lines have cemented the film as one of the most iconic satires of all time, while Peter Sellers’ performance in three separate roles within the film is equally remarkable.

1968

2001: A Space Odyssey

2001: A Space Odyssey was radically ahead of its time, expertly using sight and sound to grip the audience as the story follows an investigation into a strange object found buried beneath the lunar surface. Along the way, Kubrick’s epic sci-fi charts humanity from its early evolution right up to our unknowable interstellar future. It is epic in scale, ambition and theme, and is widely celebrated as one of Kubrick’s most significant and lasting filmmaking feats.

1971

A Clockwork Orange

Malcolm McDowell as Alex DeLarge in Stanley Kubrick’s 1971 film A Clockwork Orange.

Image Credit: Trailer of A Clockwork Orange (1971) / Wikimedia Commons

Featuring Malcolm McDowell as the leader of a violent group of delinquents in a dystopian English future, A Clockwork Orange is Kubrick’s only film that was awarded an X rating, before it was lowered to an 18 in 1999 following submission for a modern classification certificate. The lead character is the epitome of evil and has no likeable or redeeming qualities. Instead, the film is unflinchingly brutal and graphic; elements which continue to inspire debate and controversy today.

1975

Barry Lyndon

Arguably one of Kubrick’s most challenging works, Barry Lyndon was praised for its beautiful visuals – Kubrick lit all of the interiors solely with candlelight – but criticised for its slow pace, running at nearly three hours long. Based on a novel by William Makepeace Thackeray, it centres on a poor Irishman, played by Ryan O’Neal, who schemes his way into British high society. It won Oscars for costume, art direction and cinematography, which is unsurprising given that many of the shots were composed to look like classical paintings.

1980

The Shining

Perhaps Kubrick’s most famous film, The Shining was originally met with condemnation from Stephen King fans, as well as the author himself, who criticised the film’s many deviations from the novel. However, Jack Nicholson’s iconic performance as the terrifying Jack Torrance was heightened by Kubrick’s use of the then-new Steadicam, which allowed him to build tension via long, drawn-out shots of the haunted inn. Kubrick was notoriously cruel in the making of the film, particularly towards Shelley Duvall (who played Torrance’s wife), with one scene requiring a staggering 127 takes.

1987

Full Metal Jacket

Joker’s helmet from Full Metal Jacket. Displayed at Stanley Kubrick: The Exhibit, Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

Image Credit: Matthew J. Cotter from Wigan, United Kingdom / Wikimedia Commons

The horror of the Vietnam War is well-realised in Full Metal Jacket, which follows Private Joker (Matthew Modine) as he first makes his way through boot camp and then to the bloody fights in Vietnam. The chilling, anti-war story demonstrates the dehumanising effect of war upon the young soldiers, and is as tough a watch as it is entertaining. It is still frequently cited as one of the best war films ever made.

1999

Eyes Wide Shut

Kubrick died shortly before the release of Eyes Wide Shut, his final film. The story follows Dr. William Harford – played in a career-best performance by Tom Cruise – who becomes obsessed with having a sexual encounter upon hearing that his wife – played similarly expertly by Nicole Kidman – has sexual fantasies about a young naval officer. The couple then go through a dizzying odyssey of New York’s underbelly, meeting dreamlike characters along the way.