22 December 2023 marks the 80th anniversary of her death, yet her timeless stories and illustrations continue to charm and educate generations, remaining all-time and much-loved children’s classics to this day. Beyond the world of literature, Beatrix Potter left an enduring legacy as an artist, conservationist, and pioneer in publishing and merchandising. 

Here are 10 facts that illuminate the life and legacy of this iconic author and illustrator.

1. She had an early passion for nature

Helen Beatrix Potter was born on 28 July 1866 in Victorian-era London, and was educated by governesses in a rather solitary upbringing, isolated from other children. 

She had numerous pets, and spent many holidays in Scotland and the Lake District where she developed a deep love and profound appreciation for the natural world that would later inspire her stories.

Potter spent much of her childhood sketching and studying plants and animals, and in her teenage years, often visited London’s art galleries. To earn money in the 1890s, Beatrix Potter illustrated her own Christmas cards, often featuring mice and rabbits. These went on to become her first commercially successful works as an illustrator. 

In 1890, several of her drawings of ‘Benjamin Bunny’ were bought by the printing firm Hildesheimer and Faulkner to illustrate verses in A Happy Pair by Frederic Weatherly. In 1893, the same firm bought several more of Potter’s drawings for Weatherly’s Our Dear Relations, and the following year Potter sold a series of frog illustrations and verses for Changing Pictures, a popular annual. Encouraged by this success, Potter grew determined to publish her own illustrated stories.

2. Her most famous creation originated from a letter she wrote

Whenever Beatrix Potter had gone on holiday to the Lake District or Scotland, she sent letters to friends, including the children of her former governess Annie Carter Moore, illustrating them with quick sketches. Moore’s son Noel was often ill, and in September 1893, Potter wrote him a story. This would become Potter’s most famous creation, The Tale of Peter Rabbit.

Initially self-published in December 1901 after facing rejection from multiple publishers, the book was later published by Frederick Warne & Co on 2 October 1902, and became an instant success, captivating young readers with Potter’s charming narrative and whimsical illustrations.

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  A facsimile of Beatrix Potter’s copy of the original Peter Rabbit letter that she wrote to Noel Moore from Eastwood, Dunkeld, 4 September 1893. Beatrix borrowed back the original leter and copied it out, with few very minor differences in the text and exactly copying the illustrations. Bottom Centre: Cover of the first edition, The Tale of Peter Rabbit, 1902

  Image Credit: Main: Wikimedia Commons / Beatrix Potter / Museum in Hill Top Farm, National Trust / via Geertivp / Public Domain. Bottom Centre: Wikimedia Commons / Aleph-bet Books / Public Domain

The following year, Potter published The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin and The Tailor of Gloucester, which had also first been written as picture letters to the Moore children. Working with Norman Warne as her editor, Potter published two or three little books each year, totalling 23 books in all.

3. Her illustrations were scientifically accurate

Potter’s illustrations were not only captivating but also scientifically accurate. Her meticulous attention to detail in depicting flora and fauna garnered admiration from both literary and scientific circles.

4. She had an entrepreneurial spirit

Beyond her creative talents, Potter was a savvy businesswoman. She retained full control over her works, merchandise, and copyrights, breaking new ground in children’s literature by capitalising on licensing and merchandising opportunities for her characters.

As early as 1903, she made and patented a Peter Rabbit soft toy doll, making Peter the oldest licensed fictional character.

Beatrix Potter, ‘Certificate of registration for a Peter Rabbit doll, 1903’ © Frederick Warne & Co. 2006

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Frederick Warne & Co / M.L.Wits / CC BY-SA 4.0

This was followed by other ‘spin-off’ merchandise over the years, including painting books, board games, wall-paper, figurines, blankets and tea-sets, all licensed by Frederick Warne & Co. (Merchandise of Peter and other Potter characters have been sold at Harrods since at least 1910). These earned Potter an independent income, as well as large profits for her publisher.

In 1905, Potter became unofficially engaged to Norman Warne, yet the engagement sadly only lasted one month as Warne died of pernicious anaemia, aged 37.

5. She became a notable conservationist

With the proceeds from her early books and a legacy from an aunt, in 1905 (the same year as Warne’s death), Potter bought Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, a village in the Lake District near Windermere. 

Passionate about preserving the Lake District’s natural beauty, Potter became a notable conservationist and, later in life, a substantial landowner, purchasing additional farms to conserve and protect large swaths of the Lake District.

6. She was fascinated by fungi

Potter’s interest in mycology (the study of fungi) was significant. She conducted extensive research, made detailed illustrations of fungi, and presented a paper on the germination of spores, making notable contributions and gaining wide respect within the field.

(Before her death, Potter bequeathed her folio of mycological drawings to the Armitt Library and Museum in Ambleside.)

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  Beatrix Potter: reproductive system of Hygrocybe coccinea, 1897

  Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Beatrix Potter / Armitt Museum and Library / Public Domain

7. She had a deep interest in farming

Potter was deeply interested in farming and livestock breeding. Her experiences in agriculture informed her writings, and she applied her knowledge by breeding prize-winning Herdwick sheep at a large sheep farm she had bought. This established her as one of the major Herdwick sheep farmers in the county.

Owning and managing these working farms made Potter realise she needed to protect her land’s boundaries, and she sought advice from a local firm of respected solicitors with offices in nearby Hawkshead – W.H. Heelis & Son, routinely collaborating with William Heelis.

8. She married aged 47

In 1913, aged 47, Beatrix Potter married William Heelis. After this, the couple settled at Castle Cottage, a renovated farmhouse on the 24 acre Castle Farm in Near Sawrey in the Lake District, where she dedicated herself to farming, conservation, and writing. Hill Top remained a working farm with a tenant family, though Potter retained a private studio and workshop there.

Potter and William Heelis were happily married for 30 years, continuing their farming and preservation efforts throughout World War Two. Although having no children of their own, Potter played an important role in William’s large family.

9. She was profoundly generous

Beatrix Potter died of pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at her home in Near Sawrey aged 77. She bequeathed almost all her land and property to the National Trust, and is credited with preserving much of the land that now constitutes the Lake District National Park, ensuring its preservation for future generations to enjoy.

Potter also left almost all the original illustrations for her books to the National Trust, and the copyright to her stories and merchandise was given to her publisher Frederick Warne & Co. On 1 January 2014, this copyright expired in the UK and other countries with a 70-years-after-death limit. The Tale of Peter Rabbit is owned by Warne, The Tailor of Gloucester by the Tate Gallery, and The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies by the British Museum.

The largest public collection of her letters and drawings is the Leslie Linder Bequest and Leslie Linder Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

Potter’s home, Hill Top Farm, was opened to the public by the National Trust in 1946; her artwork was displayed there until 1985 when it was moved to William Heelis’s former law offices in Hawkshead, also owned by the National Trust as the Beatrix Potter Gallery.

10. She had an enduring literary impact

Potter’s books continue to sell throughout the world in many languages with her stories being retold in songs, films, ballet, and animations, and her life is depicted in two films and a television series.

Potter’s legacy endures through her timeless stories and enchanting illustrations. Her books have been translated into numerous languages and continue to captivate children and adults alike worldwide.

Here we explore the life, legacy, and contributions of arguably one of the most influential writers of the 20th century.

Early life and education

C.S. Lewis was born on 29 November 1898, in Belfast, Ireland. As a child, he was fascinated with anthropomorphic animals, and enjoyed Beatrix Potter’s stories. He often wrote and illustrated his own animal tales, including Boxen (written with his brother), about a fantasy land run by animals.

Having been schooled by private tutors, after his mother’s death when he was aged 9, he was ultimately sent to Malvern, Englandy, where he attended Cherbourg House and Malvern College, before studying privately with his father’s old tutor.

As a teenager, Lewis was interested in the Icelandic Sagas and Norse and Greek mythology, and later received a scholarship to Oxford University (University College), where he excelled in languages, particularly literature and philosophy.

Army career

Shortly after he came to Oxford University, on 8 June 1917, Lewis enlisted in the Officer’s Training Corps. After his training, he was commissioned into the 3rd Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry as a Second Lieutenant, and later transferred to the 1st Battalion of the regiment, who were then serving in France.

Thus within months of entering Oxford, Lewis was shipped by the British Army to France to fight in the First World War. On 29 November 1917 (his 19th birthday), he arrived at the front line in the Somme Valley in France, and experienced trench warfare.

Less than a year later, in April 1918 his close friend Paddy Moore was reported killed in battle, while Lewis was wounded in the Battle of Arras. The two friends had made a pact that if either died, the other would take care of both their families.

After his discharge from the army in December 1918, Lewis moved in with Moore’s mother, Mrs Janie King Moore, and Moore’s sister, Maureen.  Having lost his own mother, Lewis is said to have developed a deeply affectionate friendship with Moore, treating her as a surrogate mother figure (in part due to his own father’s distant relationship with him). He lived with her until she was hospitalised in the late 1940s, then visited her every day once she had moved into a nursing home. Some have speculated their relationship was on more of a romantic basis.

Academic career

After serving in World War One, Lewis soon returned to Oxford, receiving a triple First across his three areas of study. In 1924 he became a Philosophy tutor, and in 1925 was elected a Fellow and Tutor in English Literature at Magdalen College, Oxford, in which he remained for nearly three decades until 1954.

He was later elected to the Chair of Medieval and Renaissance Literature at Magdalene College, Cambridge University (during the time he was writing The Chronicles of Narnia series), holding the post until his retirement. His academic career flourished, contributing significantly to literary criticism and medieval literature studies.

The Inklings and friendship with J.R.R. Tolkien

Whilst lecturing at Oxford University, from April 1940 Lewis was a core member of the Inklings, an informal literary discussion group that included fellow renowned author and colleague J.R.R. Tolkien.

Tolkien and Lewis’s deep friendship and mutual respect had a profound influence on their literary works, and the two authors often shared their writings and discussed their fantastical worlds, contributing to the creation of both The Lord of the Rings and The Chronicles of Narnia series.

J.R.R. Tolkien, Owen Barfield, Charles Williams and C.S. Lewis at The Trout, just outside the Port Meadow in Oxford

Image Credit: Flickr / Levan Ramishvili / Public Domain

Conversion to Christianity

Though raised in a Christian household, Lewis faced a period of atheism during his youth, which he later claimed was due to the loss of his mother, unhappiness at school, and the horrors experienced in war. However, through profound intellectual exploration and discussions with close friends like Tolkien, Lewis experienced a spiritual awakening, and later embraced Christianity (Anglicanism) aged 32. He converted in September 1931, and became a layman of the Church of England.

This conversion became a cornerstone of his life and work, and whilst he seldom spoke of his beliefs during university lectures, his Christian faith significantly influenced his writing.

Christian apologetics

Lewis was only 40 at World War Two’s outbreak, and tried to re-enter military service, but was not accepted and he later served in the Home Guard. From 1941-1943, Lewis spoke in many BBC radio war-time broadcasts about Christianity, which gained widespread acclaim.

These broadcasts were anthologised in one of Lewis’s most influential works is Mere Christianity, a seminal book in Christian apologetics (a defence of the faith). In this work, Lewis logically and persuasively presents the core beliefs of Christianity in a way that resonates with believers and sceptics alike, making complex theological concepts accessible to a wider audience. (During this time, Lewis was made President of Oxford’s Socratic Club).

Literary career and The Chronicles of Narnia

Lewis wrote over 30 books which have been translated into over 40 languages, including The Space Trilogy, Miracles, The Screwtape Letters, The Problem of Pain, The Weight of Glory, and his memoir Surprised by Joy). However, his most famous literary legacy remains The Chronicles of Narnia series, considered a classic of children’s literature.

The beloved series began with The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (published on 16 October 1950), and consists of 7 fantasy novels exploring themes of courage, sacrifice, redemption, and spirituality, captivating readers of all ages with its imaginative storytelling and moral depth. The books contain Christian ideas, intended to be easily accessible to young readers.

To date, Lewis’s Narnia books have sold over 100 million copies and have been transformed into 3 major films.

Left: Original front cover art for the book The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Centre: Screenshot of Aslan in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Right: Front cover art for the book series The Chronicles of Narnia Box Set

Image Credit: Left: Wikimedia Commons / Publisher Geoffrey Bles / Fair Use. Centre: Wikimedia Commons 2005 film / Fair Use. Right: Wikimedia Commons / HarperCollins / Fair Use

Lewis’s writing style is known for its clarity, wit, and profound insight. His ability to blend deep philosophical ideas with captivating narratives continues to captivate readers worldwide, influencing countless authors and readers, shaping the genre of fantasy literature and theological writings.

The impact of Lewis’s writings extends beyond books. The Chronicles of Narnia series has been adapted into films, radio plays, and stage productions, captivating audiences across various mediums, and his profound theological works continue to inspire scholars and theologians.

Relationships

Lewis’s personal life was marked by enduring friendships, including his deep bond with Tolkien.

In later life, Lewis corresponded with American writer Joy Davidman Gresham, who was separated from her abusive husband and had two sons. At first, Lewis regarded her as an intellectual companion and close friend, and agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her in 1956 so she could continue living in the UK. They later sought a Christian marriage service.

Joy died of cancer 4 years later on 13 July 1960, aged 45, and Lewis continued to raise her sons after her death. Their relationship, chronicled in A Grief Observed, reflects Lewis’s emotional journey through love, loss, and faith.

Lasting influence

C.S. Lewis died on 22 November 1963 – an event overshadowed somewhat in the news by the assassination of President Kennedy the same day. However, he left behind a legacy that continues to shape literature, theology, and popular culture. His writings on faith, morality, and the human condition remain relevant, resonating with readers across generations and cultures, though many readers of his fiction are often unaware of the Christian themes of his works.

C.S. Lewis had been named on the last list of honours by George VI in 1951 as a CBE, but declined, wanting to avoid association with political issues. However, in 2013, C.S. Lewis was honoured with a memorial in Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abbey.

His multifaceted contributions as a scholar, author, and Christian thinker – along with his timeless works, philosophical insights, and imaginative storytelling – continue to impact the literary and spiritual landscapes.

This timeless work has had a lasting impact on literature, addressing themes of racial injustice, moral growth, and empathy. Drawing inspiration from her own experiences and observations during her formative years in the racially charged South, Lee’s narrative continues to resonate with readers from all walks of life.

Despite the novel’s critical acclaim, the notoriously witty Lee chose to avoid the limelight, making her a mysterious figure. Here we explore 10 facts about this enigmatic author.

1. Her full name was Nelle Harper Lee

Nelle Harper Lee, known as Harper Lee, was born on 28 April 1926, in Monroeville, Alabama, the youngest of 4 children. Her mother was Frances Cunningham Finch Lee, and her father, Amasa Coleman Lee was a lawyer and newspaper editor. (Through her father, she was distantly related to Confederate General Robert E Lee.)

Nelle was her grandmother’s name, Ellen, spelled backward. When pursuing her writing career, Harper Lee dropped her first name as she didn’t want people misprinting or mispronouncing it as “Nellie”.

2. She was friends with Truman Capote

Lee shared a close and lasting friendship with Truman Capote, the acclaimed author of In Cold Blood and Breakfast at Tiffany’s. The two had been childhood friends in Monroeville, and Lee protected Capote from neighbourhood bullies. In the 1930s, Lee’s father defended two African American men accused of murdering a white storekeeper, and Capote accompanied Lee to the trials. (Both clients, a father and son, were later hanged.) These experiences greatly influenced Lee and Capote’s literary works.

Capote served as the inspiration for the character of Dill in Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird – similarly, Capote also used Lee as an inspiration for the character Idabel Tompkins in his debut novel, Other Voices, Other Rooms.

Their friendship endured for decades, and Lee even assisted Capote with research for his novel In Cold Blood, accompanying him to Kansas several times to help his investigative work surrounding the Clutter family murders. In 1960, Lee wrote her own account of the crime, which formed the centrepiece of Capote’s book, and also profiled the investigator of the case for Grapevine, though without a byline to avoid detracting from her friend’s work. Their relationship soured after Capote didn’t credit Lee to her liking.

3. Lee quit law to pursue writing

Initially Lee intended to follow in her father’s footsteps and practice law, attending law school at the University of Alabama. However, her love for British literature sparked a half-jovial desire to be “the Jane Austen of South Alabama”. After attending Oxford University in the summer of 1948 as an exchange student studying 20th century literature, Lee’s affection for literature deepened.

Six months before she was due to graduate, Lee quit law school and moved to New York in 1949 to pursue her dream of becoming a writer.

4. She worked as an airline ticket clerk while writing her first novel

Lee worked on her draft manuscript amongst other projects while supporting herself as a ticket reservation agent for Eastern Air Lines and British Overseas Airways.

After publishing several long stories, Lee found an agent, Maurice Crain, in November 1956. Incredibly supportive of her writing endeavours, her friends Michael and Joy Brown later gifted her a year’s wages as a Christmas present – giving Lee the opportunity to dedicate herself fully to writing.

First-edition cover of To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) by the American author Harper Lee.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Jacket design by Shirley Smith / Public Domain

5. Her most famous work is To Kill a Mockingbird

Published on 11 July 1960, To Kill a Mockingbird was an immediate bestseller.

Harper Lee’s writing was heavily influenced by her childhood experiences in Monroeville, where she witnessed economic hardships and racial tensions during the Great Depression which deeply influenced her understanding of social inequality. The town served as the inspiration for the fictional town of Maycomb in her novel, as did her shared childhood adventures with Truman Capote, which inspired the camaraderie portrayed between characters Scout, Jem, and Dill.

Lee’s empathy and keen observational skills also enabled her to craft authentic and multi-dimensional characters who resonated with readers from diverse backgrounds.

Another significant influence on Lee was her high school English teacher, Gladys Watson, who had introduced Lee to British literature. Just before sending the final draft of To Kill a Mockingbird to her publishers, Lee sought Watson’s feedback. To thank her, Lee later flew Watson to New York for a visit and took her on a month-long trip to England.

6. To Kill a Mockingbird addressed racial issues in Alabama in the 1930s

To Kill a Mockingbird instantly became a literary classic, exploring themes of racial injustice and moral growth in the American South. Inspired by Harper Lee’s childhood observations of her father’s principled stand during the racially charged trial in Monroeville, the iconic character of Atticus Finch – a principled lawyer defending a black man accused of raping a white woman – became a symbol of integrity and social justice.

The book’s publication in 1960 also coincided with the height of the Civil Rights Movement, making its portrayal of racial injustice especially poignant. It struck a chord with the public, fostering empathy and understanding among people of different backgrounds, and emphasising the significance of tolerance and compassion in society. The novel also contributed to discussions on civil rights, racial equality, and the need for social change, solidifying Lee as one of America’s most influential literary figures.

7. To Kill a Mockingbird is one of the best-selling books of all time, despite complaints

Lee’s novel sold over 40 million copies worldwide and received widespread critical acclaim, winning the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1961.

Its compelling portrayal of childhood, moral dilemmas, and social issues made the book a staple in school curriculums. Its success was further amplified through the 1962 film adaptation, which also received critical acclaim and won 3 Academy Awards, including Best Actor for Gregory Peck, who portrayed Atticus Finch.

Whilst the book quickly became a literary classic, it repeatedly received complaints regarding its language and subject matter. In 1966, it was even banned by the Hanover Country School Board in Richmond, Virginia, who described it as “immoral literature”, although they later reversed their decision.

Harper Lee received numerous other accolades and honours. She was also presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush in 2007 for her contribution to literature, and in 2010, was awarded the National Medal of Arts by President Barack Obama.

Harper Lee being awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush, 5 November 2007

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / White House photo by Eric Draper / Public Domain

8. She avoided the public eye

Whilst her novel propelled her to fame, Lee avoided the limelight and led a private and frugal life, seldom making public appearances or giving interviews which added to her mystique.

While living part-time in New York City for 40 years, Lee became an avid fan of the Mets baseball team. Even after returning to Monroeville, she continued to visit New York City to attend games and visit the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Lee was also an avid golfer, once saying that she did her best creative thinking while playing golf.

9. Harper Lee’s second book was published when she was aged 89

It was assumed that To Kill a Mockingbird would be Lee’s only published novel – indeed for 55 years Lee maintained that she would never write another book, and although she had worked on other manuscripts and a second novel, nothing was released.

However, readers were shocked when HarperCollins announced Lee had agreed to publish her to rework her earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird – Go Set a Watchman (that featured the same characters but in later life) in 2015.

It caused a sensation, becoming an instant bestseller, yet its release was highly controversial, not only regarding its depiction of Atticus Finch as a racist, but around the circumstances of its publication. Questions were raised over whether Lee genuinely consented to its publication or if she had been coerced (due to her increasing physical and mental frailty). While Lee’s lawyer claimed she had approved publication, many of her friends disputed this.

10. She was one of the most influential and celebrated authors of the 20th century

Harper Lee died aged 89 on 19 February 2016, although her timeless novel remains a cornerstone of American literature, captivating and inspiring readers worldwide.

The book’s powerful narrative addressing racial injustice and moral courage continues to resonate, influencing numerous writers, activists, and readers, and sparking crucial conversations on race, empathy, and social issues. The character of Atticus Finch has also become an emblem of moral integrity and social justice, motivating generations to take a stand against injustice.

This heinous crime and the subsequent investigation, capture, trial, and execution of the two killers became the inspiration for Truman Capote’s groundbreaking true crime masterpiece, In Cold Blood. Captivating readers upon its 1966 publication, the book became an instant sensation, and remains regarded as one of the greatest works of true crime literature.

What was the real story behind Capote’s famous book, and what was it about this particular case that captivated Capote so much?

The Clutter family

Herbert “Herb” Clutter owned a farm in Holcomb, Kansas, and the Clutter family were known for their prosperity, integrity, and generosity within their local community numbering less than 300 people.

Herb’s two elder daughters, Eveanna and Beverly, had moved out of the family home and started their adult lives. His two younger children, Nancy (age 16) and Kenyon (age 15), both attended Holcomb High School. His wife Bonnie had reportedly been incapacitated by postnatal depression and physical ailments, although it was later claimed Bonnie was happy and played an active part in the local community and attended the gardening club.

The Clutter family home, Holcomb, Kansas, USA (Photo taken in March 2009)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Spacini (talk) / CC BY 3.0

Hickock and Smith

Richard “Dick” Hickock and Perry Smith were in Kansas State Penitentiary when a fellow prisoner, Floyd Wells, who had previously been a farmhand for Herb Clutter, told Hickock that Herb was wealthy and kept around $10,000 (around $90,000 today) in a safe in his house. However, Herb Clutter did not own a safe; it was generally known in the area that he preferred transacting business by cheque and seldom carried cash nor kept significant amounts in his house.

After their release and enticed by the prospect of easy money, Hickock planned to steal Herb’s safe and start a new life in Mexico. He wrote to his former cellmate Smith asking him to help.

The robbery – and murders

Hickock and Smith drove over 400 miles to the Clutter home, arriving in the early hours of 15 November 1959 and entering through an unlocked door while the family slept. After unsuccessfully searching for a safe, they woke Herb Clutter, who gave them the little cash he had (less than $50 – approximately $480 today) and told them there was no more.

Hickock and Smith then roused the rest of the family, pushing Bonnie, Nancy and Kenyon into a bathroom, then led Herb to his office, continuing to search the house to check Herb’s statement. They then retrieved the other three family members from the bathroom. Bonnie’s hands were tied in front of her, was gagged, then tucked into a bed in a room on the second floor. Nancy’s hands were tied behind her, then she too was tucked into a bed, yet not gagged.

Herb and Kenyon were then taken to the basement – Kenyon was gagged, his hands tied behind him, and the rope tied to an overhead steam pipe. Changing their minds, he was freed from the pipe, then moved into an adjoining playroom, still bound and gagged. He was placed on a sofa with a pillow behind his head. Herb was also bound and gagged, then pushed onto a mattress box on the basement’s floor. Hickock then returned upstairs to continue the search.

Finding no safe, Hickock angrily returned to the basement. Assuming Herb was withholding information and having planned to leave no witnesses, after a brief debate, Smith – prone to fits of rage – slit Herb’s throat, then shot him in the head. Moments later, Smith and Hickock reentered the playroom where Smith shot and killed Kenyon. Proceeding to the second floor, they entered the room Nancy was in, shot and killed her, then also killed Bonnie with a gunshot to the head.

Hickock and Smith then retrieved the spent bullet shells and fled, taking a pair of binoculars, a portable radio and the approximate $50 in cash they’d obtained from Herb.

Capture

Hours later, the Clutter family’s bodies were found by Nancy’s friend. Kansas’ Garden City Police Department Chief Mitchell Geisler arrived, accompanied by Assistant Chief Ritch Rohleder. Rohleder was an expert photographer, and it was through his photographs that under ultraviolet light, a bloody boot-print – invisible to the naked eye – was discovered, which could have only belonged to the killer (later identified as Smith’s). A photograph was also taken of tire tracks they’d left.

The shocking nature of the crime caused disbelief amongst the tight-knit community. Alvin Dewey of the Kansas Bureau of Investigations (KBI) led the investigation, assisted by 4 other KBI investigators and other governmental agencies.

Hickock and Smith immediately fled to Kansas City where Hickock wrote a series of fraudulent cheques. They then headed to Mexico, pawning the binoculars to then hitchhike through California towards Omaha, Nebraska. From there, they headed to Iowa where they stole a car and returned to Kansas City. From there, they travelled to Florida then Nevada.

Meanwhile, Dewey and the KBI had pieced together evidence, corroborated by Floyd Wells (the prisoner who had informed Hickock and Smith about Herb Clutter’s wealth) in exchange for reward money and early release.

Hickock and Smith were captured in Las Vegas on 31 December 1959, roughly 6 weeks after the murders – still driving the stolen car and whilst picking up a parcel containing Smith’s belongings shipped from Mexico, amongst which were the boots that had made the footprint. They were arrested for vehicle theft, after which Dewey and the KBI flew to Nevada. Each man was questioned separately, and both eventually confessed to the murders, though Hickock maintained that Smith killed all 4 people, and later Smith claimed to have dissuaded Hickock from raping Nancy.

Hickock and Smith were taken to Garden City, put on trial, and unanimously found guilty. For the next 5 years they lived on death row at Kansas’ Leavenworth federal prison, where they discussed the crime in graphic detail to anyone who’d listen.

They were both executed by hanging on 14 April 1965.

Truman Capote’s fascination with the case

Prior to their capture, Truman Capote had learned of the Clutter family murders through The New York Times. Captivated by the case, he saw the potential for a gripping story about the inexplicable nature of the brutal, senseless crime, and its impact on Holcomb’s close-knit community.

He travelled to Garden City, Kansas, to write about it, accompanied by childhood friend and fellow author, Harper Lee, who assisted with research. Lee made inroads into the community by befriending the wives of those Capote wanted to interview. The two were writing for The New Yorker when Hickock and Smith were arrested.

Left: Truman Capote (in 1959); Top right: Harper Lee – photographed by Truman Capote; Bottom right: front cover art for the book ‘In Cold Blood’

Image Credit: Left/Top right: via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain; Bottom Right: Vintage Publishers / Fair Use

Over 6 years, Capote (often aided by Lee) immersed himself in the community, gathering details and conducting extensive interviews with everyone involved in the investigation and most of the residents of the small town as well as friends and acquaintances of the Clutter family. Capote committed conversations to memory and immediately wrote quotes as soon as the interview ended, making thousands of pages of meticulous notes to piece together the events.

During their time in prison, Hickock and Smith spoke to Capote and Lee multiple times. Intrigued by their psychological makeup and motivations, Capote discovered a complex mix of factors that had contributed to their actions, including struggles Smith had experienced in his troubled and difficult past. 

The impact of In Cold Blood

Capote’s extensive research culminated in the publication of In Cold Blood in 1966 – seen as one of the greatest works in true crime literature.

Capote’s riveting narrative blurred the lines between fiction and non-fiction, and his novelistic style pioneered the non-fiction novel genre, which he called ‘New Journalism’. Capote’s compelling story, rich in depth, connected readers with the victims yet humanised the killers – revealing their troubled circumstances, complex emotions and motivations, without justifying their heinous acts.

Whilst the book brought Capote significant publicity and wealth, it took a heavy toll. Interestingly, he never published another book. Nevertheless, the book’s enduring impact continues to influence writers and captivate readers, exploring the depths of human psychology in the face of shocking crimes.

Capote’s keen eye for detail and deep understanding of human psychology were skilfully employed in his works, notably in Breakfast at Tiffany’s and In Cold Blood. Capote’s distinctive prose blended fiction and non-fiction, and he left a lasting legacy as a pioneer of literary journalism. Additionally, while not a prominent activist, Capote’s own openness about his homosexuality and his encouragement for openness in others helped contribute to the gay rights movement.

Here are 10 facts about this literary icon.

1. Capote was not his real surname

Truman Capote was born on 30 September 1924 in New Orleans, Louisiana, originally named Truman Streckfus Persons. He changed his name to Truman Garcia Capote in 1935 – from his stepfather, Joseph Capote, a Cuban-born New York businessman.

2. He was primarily raised by his mother’s relatives

Capote’s parents divorced when he was very young, and he was subsequently primarily raised by his mother’s relatives in Monroeville, Alabama. He formed a special bond with his distant relative, Nanny Rumbley Faulk – ‘Sook’ – who made him a baby blanket. This became one of Capote’s most cherished possessions, and Capote reportedly had the blanket with him the day he died.

As a lonely child, Capote taught himself to read and write before starting school. He later described his childhood as that of ‘a spiritual orphan’, feeling intellectually superior and more perceptive than those around him and believing that no-one could truly understand him. He found solace in writing, and aged 11, began intensively writing fiction.

3. A character in To Kill a Mockingbird was based on Capote

Truman Capote’s best friend in Monroeville was the girl-next-door, Nelle Harper Lee, who later based the precocious character of Dill Harris on Capote in her famous novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. Similarly, Capote also used Harper Lee as an inspiration for the character Idabel Tompkins in his debut novel, Other Voices, Other Rooms.

4. His breakthrough came with his debut novel

After her subsequent marriage to Joe Capote, Capote’s mother (who later committed suicide) brought him to New York City. Despite attending various prestigious schools, he disliked formal education, dropping out of high school without completing his studies. Aged 17, Capote managed to secure a job as a copyboy for The New Yorker. During his 2 year stint, he had several short stories published in smaller magazines.

In 1945, Capote’s short story, Miriam, was sold to Mademoiselle magazine, and won an award the following year. This led to a publishing contract and a $1,500 advance from Random House to write his first novel. Published in 1948 (when he was aged 23), Capote’s debut novel, Other Voices, Other Rooms was a semi-autobiographical coming-of-age story that explored themes of identity, sexuality (Capote was openly gay), and the search for belonging. The novel received widespread critical acclaim for Capote’s unique narrative voice.

The book’s cover, featuring a sensually reclining photograph of Capote, also garnered attention and added to his public persona. This distinctive image became a subject of interpretation and discussion, further shaping Capote’s literary and public personality.

Back cover of Other Voices, Other Rooms, 1948 novel by Truman Capote, featuring a photograph of the author by Harold Halma.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / photograph by Harold Halma, book cover design by Sol Immerman / Public Domain

5. He created the iconic character Holly Golightly

Capote travelled widely and lived abroad much of the time with Jack Dunphy (his companion of more than 25 years). Alongside his novels, Capote excelled in crafting novellas and short-story collections, contributing to publications like Vogue and The New Yorker.

His collection Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1958) introduced the iconic character Holly Golightly, iconically portrayed by Audrey Hepburn in the film adaptation. Capote’s talent for capturing the essence of complex characters in concise narratives showcased his ability to create deeply emotional and memorable stories.

Left: Audrey Hepburn in the trailer for Truman Capote’s ‘Breakfast at Tiffany’s’. Right: Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961 poster)

Image Credit: Both: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

6. He pioneered a new literary genre

Capote’s groundbreaking book, In Cold Blood, was published in 1966 (after being serialised in The New Yorker) and was a journalistic work delving into the chilling murder of the Clutter family in Holcomb, Kansas in 1959 and the capture, trial and execution of the two killers.

Capote dedicated 6 years to meticulously researching and writing the book, aided by childhood friend Harper Lee. His extensive access to the case resulted in a riveting narrative that blurred the lines between fiction and non-fiction. Written in a novelistic style, complete with dialogue, In Cold Blood pioneered the genre of the ‘non-fiction novel’, which Capote referred to as “New Journalism”.

The book became an instant sensation and is regarded as one of the greatest works of true crime literature. It brought Capote significant publicity and wealth, but also took a heavy toll on him – he never published another book again.

7. He hosted legendary parties with his celebrity friends

Capote harboured a deep desire to be rich and famous alongside his aspirations as a writer. The success of In Cold Blood made Capote an instant celebrity, granting him numerous talk show appearances which showcased his viperish wit and appetite for scandalous gossip.

At 5ft 4, Capote’s flamboyant personality and socialite status made him a prominent figure in high society. He cultivated friendships with celebrities and renowned figures including Andy Warhol and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, hosting legendary parties that attracted a diverse mix of artists, writers, and Hollywood stars. One such event, the masked Black and White Ball at the Plaza Hotel in New York in 1966 – thrown for 500 of his ‘very closest friends’ – received significant media coverage.

The success of Capote’s In Cold Blood had enabled Capote to use his time as he wished in writing other material, yet his partying lifestyle hindered his progress, resulting in a prolonged bout of ‘writer’s block’ that delayed the completion of his highly anticipated novel, Answered Prayers, originally scheduled for publication in 1968.

To maintain public interest, Capote allowed excerpts of the unfinished novel to be published in Esquire magazine in 1975. This decision was catastrophic to his carefully cultivated social life, as one excerpt, La Côte Basque, revealed supposedly true and scandalous stories about his famous friends, naming names. This resulted in him losing their friendship, and a significant decline in his social standing.

8. He struggled with substance abuse

Despite his literary success, Capote struggled with substance abuse and alcohol addiction, and his subsequent works failed to achieve the same level of critical acclaim as his earlier triumphs.

His overall health and well-being greatly deteriorated and Capote put on weight and developed a painful facial nerve condition (a tic doloreux). In the late 1970’s he underwent treatment for alcoholism and drug addiction, and his breakdowns frequently became public news.

9. He left behind several unfinished works

Truman Capote died aged 59 in 1984, leaving several unfinished works including Answered Prayers – a salacious parody of high Hollywood society which he’d deemed his ‘masterwork’. An unfinished version, Answered Prayers: The Unfinished Novel, was released in 1986.

Capote also had a lesser-known unfinished work, a love story set in New York that he started around the 1940’s, revolving around a romance between a parking attendant and a wealthy young woman. Capote initially claimed he’d discarded the manuscript, but it was later discovered and picked up by a house-sitter from Capote’s abandoned Brooklyn Heights apartment after the success of In Cold Blood. The manuscript, Summer Crossing, was published in 2005.

10. Many adaptations have been made of his work

Capote’s ability to blend fact and fiction, his skill in crafting intimate and captivating narratives, and his exploration of complex human emotions continue to inspire contemporary writers.

Capote’s works have been adapted into numerous films and stage productions, amplifying his cultural influence. The film adaptation of In Cold Blood (1967) received critical acclaim, as did the 2005 biographical film, Capote, in which Capote was played by the late Philip Seymour Hoffman – showcasing the enduring interest in Capote’s life and works.

Despite this, Anne’s literary works challenged societal norms, confronted explored taboo subjects, and offered a unique perspective on Victorian life. Was Anne simply ahead of her time?

Early life

Anne Brontë, the youngest of the six Brontë siblings, was born on 17 January 1820 in Thornton, Yorkshire, and grew up in the parsonage at Haworth parish on the Yorkshire moors. Her mother was Maria Branwell Brontë, and her father, Patrick Brontë, was a poor, Irish, Church of England clergyman.

Anne’s mother died when Anne was 1, leading her aunt, Elizabeth Branwell, to move into the parsonage to care for the children. Despite showing little affection, Anne was Elizabeth’s favourite and shared a room with her, likely influencing Anne’s personality and religious beliefs.

In 1825, Anne faced further tragedy with the deaths of her sisters Maria and Elizabeth from tuberculosis. Charlotte and Emily were subsequently brought home from school and educated by their father, who instilled in them a love for reading and learning, exposing them, along with Anne, to classical literature and other genres.

These early experiences of loss profoundly impacted Anne and influenced her writing through her exploration of themes including mortality and grief.

Imaginative play

Anne, Charlotte and Emily made little attempt to mix with others outside the parsonage, instead finding solace in their shared love for storytelling and imaginative play. In 1826, their father gifted their brother Branwell toy soldiers (the ‘Twelves’), which sparked their creativity. They named the soldiers, developed characters, and built stories of an imaginary African kingdom ‘Angria’ around them.

As Charlotte left for Roe Head School in 1831, Anne and Emily grew closer and expanded their imaginative world to create ‘Gondal’, for which they created intricate stories, poems, and plays, which they collectively referred to as the ‘Gondal Chronicles’. This nurtured their literary talents and became an integral part of their shared creative pursuits.

Formal education and time as a governess

Charlotte gave Anne lessons on her return from Roe Head school, and subsequently returned to Roe Head as a teacher. By then Emily was a pupil (her place financed by Charlotte’s teaching), but homesickness eventually led to her withdrawal; Anne took her place, aged 15.

Anne was quiet, diligent and determined to acquire an education, yet by December 1837 had fallen ill with gastritis and was distressed by a religious crisis, and was brought home. Concerned that her father had no private income and the parsonage would revert to the church upon his death, a year later, Anne sought a teaching position. In April 1839 she became a governess for the Ingham family at Blake Hall. However, the disobedient children and family’s prohibition on punishment led to Anne’s dismissal.

Returning briefly to Haworth, Anne and her sisters found solace in the companionship of William Weightman, their father’s handsome curate, until his untimely death from cholera. (Weightman’s influence inspired a poem, and a character in Anne’s novel Agnes Grey).

From 1840-1845, Anne worked as a governess at Thorp Green Hall near York (the inspiration for Agnes Grey’s Horton Lodge) for the Robinson family. She was determined and made a success of her position, becoming well-liked by her employers, even accompanying the family on annual holidays to Scarborough.

During this time, Anne’s aunt Elizabeth died in 1842, leaving a £350 legacy for each of her nieces (equivalent to over £40,000).

Anne arranged for Branwell to work as a tutor at Thorp Green Hall, but later resigned, supposedly after discovering his affair with the employer’s wife.

The Brontë’s emerging publishing dreams

In 1845, the Brontë sisters were all back at their father’s home with no immediate job prospects. Discovering poetry each had written, they decided to use their inheritance from their aunt to pay for the publication of a collection of their poems. Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell, was published in May 1846, containing 21 poems by Anne, 21 by Emily, and 19 by Charlotte. To conceal their gender, they adopted pen names, retaining their initials – Anne’s pseudonym was Acton Bell.

Despite favourable reviews, the book was a commercial failure – only two copies sold in the first year. (Nevertheless, Anne’s poems The Three Guides, and The Narrow Way, were later published in 1848 by the Leeds Intelligencer and Fraser’s Magazine under her pseudonym.)

Left: Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. First edition; Centre: First edition title page of Agnes Grey by Anne Bronte. (Volumes 1 and 2 of this edition are Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte); Right: Title page of the first edition of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, published in 1848.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Publication

Undeterred, in July 1846, the Brontë sisters sent manuscripts of their debut novels to various publishers in London. Charlotte’s novel was titled The Professor, Emily’s Wuthering Heights, and Anne’s Agnes Grey. Although Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey were accepted, it was Charlotte’s second novel, Jane Eyre, that was published first, achieving immediate success.

Subsequently, Anne’s Agnes Grey, was published in December 1847 – the same time as Emily’s Wuthering Heights. Anne’s second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, followed in June 1848. To dispel rumours of the ‘Bell brothers’ being a single person, Anne and Charlotte visited their publisher, George Smith, in London a month later.

Anne’s death

Branwell Brontë’s persistent alcoholism had masked his deteriorating health, and he died on 24 September 1848, aged 31 (likely from tuberculosis). The family suffered further illnesses that winter, and Emily died on 19 December, aged 30.

Emily’s death deeply affected Anne, who was herself battling declining health from influenza and advanced tuberculosis. Anne accepted the news that she had little chance of recovery with characteristic resolve. Unlike Emily, she followed all recommended medical advice, and wrote her last poem, A dreadful darkness closes in, reflecting her acceptance of terminal illness. Anne visited Scarborough in May, hoping sea air might aid her recovery, yet her condition worsened and she died on 28 May 1849, aged 29.

Following Anne’s death, Charlotte edited Agnes Grey to address issues with its first edition, yet prevented the republication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, believing the subject matter a mistake. Subsequently, critics paid less attention to Anne’s work.

Left: A pencil sketch of Anne by her sister Charlotte, c. 1845; Right: Anne Brontë, by Charlotte Brontë, 1834 in watercolour

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Charlotte Brontë / The Poet's Corner / Public Domain

Writing style and themes

Anne Brontë’s novels, Agnes Grey (1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848), exhibited her distinct writing style and explored unconventional themes for the Victorian era. Agnes Grey draws from Anne’s own experiences as a governess, shedding light on the mistreatment and social inequalities faced by women in such positions – establishing it as an important feminist work.

The Tenant of Wildfell Hall tackles even more contentious subjects, including alcoholism, abusive relationships, and women’s rights. The protagonist, Helen Graham, defied societal norms by leaving her abusive husband and pursuing independence. This novel received mixed reactions due to its frank depiction of marital issues and female agency, but undoubtedly broke new ground, challenging prevailing social and legal structures.

Impact and legacy

Despite their initial controversy, Anne Brontë’s novels had a lasting impact on Victorian literature, presenting a realistic, un-romanticised depiction of society. She refused to glamorise violent, oppressive men, unlike the idealised worlds found in the works of her contemporaries, instead preferring to write about men who expressed their love in words rather than through domination. Their themes of gender inequality, the struggles of working-class women, and the limitations imposed on women in Victorian society still resonate today.

Anne’s relative obscurity can be attributed in part to her premature death. Her works were also considered less sensational and lacked the gothic elements that made Charlotte’s Jane Eyre and Emily’s Wuthering Heights widely popular. However, since the mid-20th century, biographies, scholars, and readers have recognised Anne’s significance in challenging societal norms and feminist perspective.

Although overshadowed by her sisters, Anne’s novels courageously confronted societal taboos, gave voice to silenced women, addressed women’s need for independence, and explored alcoholism’s destructive effects. Anne’s portrayal of strong female characters and exploration of complex moral issues was more radical than her sisters – and ahead of her time, paving the way for future women writers.

Here are 10 interesting facts about Mary Shelley.

1. Her parents were famous intellectuals

Mary Shelley was born to two of the most famous intellectuals of her time. Her mother was Mary Wollstonecraft, a writer, feminist philosopher and women’s rights advocate, who famously wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Her father was William Godwin, a political philosopher and novelist.

Mary’s mother died less than a fortnight after giving birth to her. She was raised by her father, who provided her with an informal yet rich education, encouraging her to adhere to his own anarchist political theories. Her father remarried when Mary was aged 4, to their neighbour, Mary Jane Clairmont. Mary came to have a troubled relationship with her.

2. She eloped with Percy Bysshe Shelley

In 1814, while still a teenager, Mary started a romance with Percy Bysshe Shelley, a poet who was one of her father’s political followers, who was already married with a child. Along with her stepsister Claire, Mary and Percy left for France in 1814 and travelled around Europe.

Upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percy’s child. Over the next two years, she and Percy were ostracised, and faced constant debt, along with the death of their prematurely born daughter. They married in late 1816, after the suicide of Percy Shelley’s first wife, Harriet.

Although they faced many difficulties throughout their relationship, they remained together until Percy’s death in 1822.

Portrait of Percy Bysshe Shelley, by Amelia Curran

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / National Portrait Gallery / Public Domain

3. Her father disapproved of her relationship with Percy Bysshe Shelley

William Godwin disapproved of his daughter’s relationship with Percy Bysshe Shelley, partly because Percy was still married to his first wife when he met Mary. This disapproval strained his relationship with Mary, but they eventually Mary and her father reconciled.

4. She was friends with other famous writers

Mary Shelley was friends with several other famous writers of her time, including Lord Byron, John William Polidori and John Keats.

Her friendship with Byron was particularly close, and it was he who challenged the assembled company one night on Lake Geneva (during her 1814 European travels with Percy) that each produce a ghost story. Mary won the challenge, with her novel that eventually became Frankenstein.

5. Mary Shelley’s most famous work is Frankenstein

Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus when she was aged just 18. The novel tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a scientist who creates a sentient creature from dead body parts who exacts vengeance on his maker. Frankenstein is now considered a classic of Gothic literature and has had a lasting impact on popular culture.

Left: Manuscript page from Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, 1816. Right:
Title page of first edition of Frankenstein, Volume I. (Background: Portrait of Mary Shelley)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

6. She suffered many personal tragedies

Mary Shelley’s life was marked by personal tragedy. As well as her mother dying shortly after giving birth to her, Mary lost three of her four children to illness. She also suffered the deaths of several close friends and family members, and later her husband.

Percy Shelley died in 1822, and Mary spent more years as his widow than as his consort, doting on her surviving child, Percy Florence.

7. She was a prolific writer

In addition to Frankenstein, Mary Shelley wrote several other novels, including Valperga, The Last Man, and Lodore. She also wrote numerous short stories, essays, and poems. Despite her many personal challenges, she continued to write throughout her life including genre fiction for London Magazine.

8. Shelley was interested in science

Mary Shelley was fascinated by science, particularly the work of scientists like Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta. This interest is evident in Frankenstein, which explores the consequences of playing God through scientific experimentation.

9. Shelley edited and published her husband’s work after his death

After Percy Bysshe Shelley drowned in 1822, Mary Shelley edited and published several volumes of his work. She also wrote his biography, The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley, which is still considered one of the most important works of Shelley scholarship.

10. Mary Shelley’s legacy continues to inspire

Mary Shelley died in 1851, aged 53. In the years immediately after her death, she was mostly remembered as Percy Bysshe Shelley’s wife and a one-novel author of Frankenstein.

However, in 1989, Emily Sunstein published a prizewinning biography of her – Mary Shelley: Romance and Reality – that analysed all of Shelley’s letters, journals, and works within their historical context. This lead to a republication of nearly all Shelley’s writings, and her voracious reading habits and intensive study (revealed in her journals, letters and works), is now better appreciated, with scholars now considering her a major Romantic literary figure.

Shelley’s exploration of themes like science, morality, and the role of women in society remain as relevant today as they were in the 19th century, and her life and work continues to inspire writers, scientists, and feminists around the world.

Not much is known about Anne, but while she is most commonly known as Shakespeare’s wife, there is more to her life than that.

Early life

Anne Hathaway was born in 1556 in Shottery, a small village located to the west of Stratford-upon-Avon (less than 1.5 miles away from where Shakespeare was born and raised). Her father, Richard Hathaway, was a yeoman farmer (and thus a well-respected member of the local community), and her mother, Joan, was thought to have died when Anne was aged 10. Anne – also known as Agnes – was the eldest of eight children, and her family were considered well-off for the time.

Little is known about Anne Hathaway’s life before she met William Shakespeare, but it is clear that she came from a relatively well-off family, who were tenants of a one-storey ‘cottage’ on a 90-acre farm. (This farmhouse was kept in the Hathaway family for 13 generations until purchased by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in 1892 and turned into a museum).

She likely received an education – unusual for women of the time – and may have been involved in local social and cultural events. It is also possible that she had some connection to the theatre before she met Shakespeare as her family were known to have some ties to the theatre world.

Upon Richard Hathaway’s death in 1581, he left his daughter Anne a small sum of money with which she could marry.

Anne Hathaway’s Cottage in Shottery, near Stratford-upon-Avon

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Wedding to William Shakespeare

Anne Hathaway married William Shakespeare in November 1582 when she was thought to be 26 years old, and he was just 18. This age difference was not uncommon for the time, and the marriage was likely arranged by their parents. The average age of marriage was 26, so whilst Anne was an eligible young lady, William was still a minor in the eyes of the law, therefore needing permission from Anne’s father to marry her.

At the time of their marriage, Anne was already three months pregnant with their first child, Susanna, who was born just six months later. To avoid scandal, it was important they married before signs of her pregnancy became too obvious. Consequently, William sped things up by applying to the Bishop’s Court in Worcester, and they married outside their home parish. Subsequently no records exist of where their marriage took place.

Their age difference, alongside Anne’s pre-wedding pregnancy, has meant some historians view this as evidence they had a ‘shotgun wedding’, forced on a reluctant Shakespeare by the Hathaway family, but there is no evidence for this.

Documents from Worcester’s Episcopal Register record (in Latin) the issuing of a wedding licence to “William Shakespeare” and “Anne Whateley” of Temple Grafton. The following day, friends of the Hathaway family signed a surety of £40 as a financial guarantee for the wedding of “William Shagspere and Anne Hathwey”. Some argue this is evidence Shakespeare was involved with two women, choosing to marry one, Anne Whateley, but when this became known he was forced by Hathaway’s family to marry their pregnant relative. This alleged entrapment was seen as a reason for his decision to pursue a career in the theatre in London.

However, most modern scholars think the name Whateley was almost certainly a clerical error, and some suggest Shakespeare and Hathaway’s age difference suggest he was the one to pursue her. Shakespeare offered few prospects for a husband at the time; his family had fallen into financial ruin, while Hathaway was from a family in good social and financial standing, and would have been considered a catch. Furthermore, pregnancy was frequently a precursor to legal marriage at the time.

Marriage

After their wedding, Anne lived with Shakespeare in his family home on Henley Street, Stratford-upon-Avon, which doubled as a glover’s shop. Two years after Susanna’s birth, the couple had twins, Hamnet and Judith.

Very little is known about Anne and William’s relationship, though it is thought it was not always smooth sailing. Soon after the birth of their twins, Shakespeare spent most of his time in London working as an actor and playwright, while Anne remained with Shakespeare’s family in Henley Street with their children. It is not known how regularly they saw each other, but whilst Shakespeare is said to have visited often, it is likely that their relationship was strained due to the distance between them.

Their son, Hamnet, died aged 11 on 11 August 1596 during a bubonic plague outbreak. It is unclear whether Shakespeare was able to attend his funeral in Stratford-upon-Avon, though obviously likely.

There are also rumours Shakespeare may have been unfaithful to Anne during their marriage. In one of his sonnets, he refers to a “dark lady”, who some scholars believe may have been a mistress. However, there is no evidence to support this theory, and it is possible that Shakespeare was using the sonnet to explore different emotions and experiences in his writing.

Furthermore, after retiring from the theatre around 1613, Shakespeare chose to live with Anne in Stratford-upon-Avon in New Place (bought by Shakespeare, and the family home since 1597), rather than in London. Despite any difficulties they may have faced, Anne and Shakespeare remained married until Shakespeare’s death in 1616.

Shakespeare’s will

Under English medieval common law, a widow was entitled to a third of her late husband’s estate for her life, and the right to live in the family home, even if not specifically mentioned in the will. However in practice, most wives were mentioned, often affectionately.

On his death, Shakespeare’s will (signed on 25 March 1616) left Anne his ‘second best bed’. However, in Shakespeare’s time, beds of prosperous citizens were hugely expensive, sometimes equivalent in value to a small house, so this is not necessarily the slight to Anne it first appears, and was most probably their marital bed.

Their ‘best’ bed (usually reserved for guests), would have been passed to their eldest heir, Susanna, upon his death, along with the bulk of his estate (including the Shakespeare family home on Henley Street) – something entirely within the customs of the time.

After Shakespeare’s death, Anne lived for another seven years, dying in 1623 aged 67. She was buried in Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-upon-Avon, where Shakespeare is also buried.

The only surviving image that may depict Anne Hathaway, wife of William Shakespeare. Portrait line-drawing made by Sir Nathaniel Curzon in 1708, referred to as “Shakespear’s Consort”. It was drawn on the verso of the original title page in the Third Folio (1663) of Shakespeare’s works located in the Colgate University Libraries, Special Collection and University Archives, Hamilton, NY.

Mysterious legacy

Known for being the wife of one of the greatest writers in the English language, Anne Hathaway was also a mother, daughter, and member of her community during a time of great change in England.

In recent years, scholars and writers have sought to uncover more information about Anne’s life. Some suggest she may have had a greater influence on Shakespeare’s work than was previously thought, while others have looked into her family’s connections to the theatre world.

However, due to the amount of conjecture about her, it’s important to acknowledge how little we actually know about Anne. Scholars, authors, playwrights and films have all attempted to depict various portraits of Anne over the centuries; to some, she is a ‘country bumpkin’ wife left behind in Stratford whom Shakespeare disliked, some perceive her love as Shakespeare’s muse, and some think of Anne as a heroine wronged by history.

All these viewpoints are pure speculation. It is impossible to determine any real sense of Shakespeare’s relationship with Anne from the scant evidence available – just two documents: Shakespeare’s marriage license and his will – meaning Anne’s full story remains a mystery.

The work outlined the hugely influential theory of natural selection, which is now widely accepted in biology and by the scientific community as a way of explaining how complex life and humans evolved.

In addition, the inherent contradictions between Darwin’s theories and orthodox Christian beliefs helped create the great debate between religion and science which raged since the publication of Darwin’s tract.

This debate reached a famous climax in the Scopes Trial of 1925, and while a scientific approach to knowledge is in ascendance now, the debate still occurs today on a smaller level.

The orthodoxy

Although evolutionary ideas had been tentatively put forward throughout the first half of the 19th century, the scientific community’s close ties with the Anglican Church of England made it hard for them to gain much credence.

The natural theology of the church taught that species were fixed and part of God’s ordained hierarchy, and that man was made in the image of God and therefore quite separate from the rest of animal life.

Painting of a young Darwin. Image credit: George Richmond, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

An unwillingness to challenge these teachings did not change until a young Cambridge graduate called Charles Darwin began his research.

The young scientist was no atheist crusader against the ignorance of the church, and had even made some anti-evolutionary arguments in papers while at Cambridge.

However, he had a keen interest in science and biology, having enrolled at medical school in Edinburgh before going to Cambridge to study the natural sciences and geology.

Voyage on the Beagle

In December 1831 Darwin volunteered to join on the HMS Beagle military and scientific expedition, which spent a lot of time in South America. It was there the young naturalist studied the fossils of long-extinct animals, and was surprised to find that they closely resembled living species on the continent.

This discovery shook his belief in the fixed nature of species, as it seemed likely that the extinct animals had somehow evolved into the living ones, creating a new but similar species.

The expedition continued for five years, and as it went on, Darwin collected more data which seemed to support his new idea, most famously observing that on three different Galapagos islands three different species of mockingbirds had evolved, each with subtle differences which seemed to suit that particular island.

When he finally returned home in 1836 he sought scientific opinion on what he had discovered, and it was confirmed that the fossils he had brought back from South America were indeed related to the Rhea, a large indigenous bird.

With many of the hallmarks of his theory now in place, Darwin took the unorthodox step of consulting animal breeders for their opinions, and was struck by the strikingly human behaviour and appearance of an orangutan he saw in the zoo.

Over the following decades, Darwin spent his time collecting and amassing a huge amount of evidence and case studies that he could use to support his budding theory. By 1856 it was sophisticated, well-supported and comprehensively outlined in a long essay.

In 1855, Darwin received a letter telling him of another biologist – Alfred Russel Wallace – was onto a very similar theory which he called the “introduction” of species, and urging him to publish his works before the theory became associated with his competitor.

Over the next years he was in contact with Wallace, and they collaborated on some papers together, but Darwin was determined to get his theory out first, setting himself a target of five years to perfect his theory.

Publication and reaction

Finally, in November 1859, On the Origin of Species was published to great international interest. In the book, Darwin presents his theory of natural selection as the mechanism for the evolution of species over time. He argued that species undergo gradual changes in response to their environments, and those with favourable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their traits to future generations. These ideas challenged the prevailing belief of the time in divine creation and biblical literalism, as well as the traditional view of species as fixed and unchanging.

Famously, it immediately came under attack from conservatives and Christians due to the theory’s inherent contradictions with religious teachings, and Darwin was widely derided for suggesting that humans and apes might share a common ancestry.

An 1871 caricature following publication of ‘The Descent of Man’ was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory. Image credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

However, the now middle-aged scientist was a respected name in learned circles, allowing his work to be taken seriously, and by the 1870s his “evolutionism” had conclusively won the scientific community round.

Today faith in Darwinism is almost universal. Despite a backlash against it in the early 20th century, new discoveries, such as DNA, made alternative theories untenable. Many of the most important fields of applied science today, from genetic mutation to vaccination, relied on the theory of natural selection for their inception, and it continues to be the foundation of all modern life sciences.

Darwin’s theories have made church teachings seem outdated, and this may have contributed to the increasing secularisation of western Europe.

Charles Darwin died peacefully in 1882, surrounded by his family.

Header image credit: Charles Darwin, from a photograph by Elliott & Fry. Credit: Library of Congress / Commons.

One of the most prominent and influential figures in this genre is Edgar Allan Poe, whose works have left an indelible mark on gothic literature. The Raven, a poem first published by Poe in January 1845, quickly gained immense popularity due to its unique mood and tight rhyming pattern, making it highly imitated. The poem catapulted him to national fame with its melancholic portrayal of lost love and stands out as a masterpiece that has become emblematic of the genre.

The life of Poe

Poe’s own short, violent and unhappy life adds to the intrigue that surrounds him. After a youth dominated by rebelliousness, poverty and alcoholism, he married his 13 year old cousin Virginia Clemm in 1836, and died 13 years later at the age of 40.

Despite the lasting and immediate fame that The Raven brought him, he was one of the first western writers to try and make a living out of their literary works alone, and lived a life of destitution for the most part as a result.

Potrait of Edgar Allan Poe (1849). Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

During the last 4 years of his life however, he was a celebrity in the United States and beyond, and was known by many as “the Raven” in honour of the poem. His own sepulchral pale and dark-haired appearance only added to the air of the gothic around him in an age where photographs were starting to become popular.

Today, he’s heralded as the inventor of detective fiction and one of the precursors to science fiction writing.

Poe’s Raven

In the century and a half since its publication, The Raven has been analysed heavily, and an almost limitless number of interpretations and meanings have been found in Poe’s words. What is certain are the themes of loss, creeping madness and the terrible human desire to both forget and remember what we have lost at the same time have captured audiences for well over 150 years.

The protagonist, an unnamed scholar, is driven to despair by a black raven which perches upon a classical bust in his room and answers his hopeless questions about whether he will see a deceased lover again with the single and terrible word “nevermore.”

The poem’s sonorous and inexorable metre is one of the main reasons for its fame, as it gives it the feel of a pagan chant, whilst the internal rhyme and alliteration help make it more memorable and drive the story forward.

Influence

The Raven also marked a shift from the era of neo-classicism to that of the Gothic, with its focus on older and barbaric rituals, superstitions and evil spirits.

Europe, and by extension the US, was a place obsessed with the orderly, rationalistic legacy of Greece and Rome in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and as a result philosophy and popular thought were dominated by science and logic.

It is no coincidence, therefore, that in the poem The Raven, a timeless symbol of Paganism and superstition rests upon a bust of Pallas, an ancient Greek purveyor of wisdom. For this and many other reasons, The Raven fully deserves its place in the Western literary canon.

Legacy

The Raven transformed Poe’s career overnight: whilst it did not bring him massive financial gain, he became something of a sensation and his work became much more popular.