So, who was the real William Wallace? What do we truly know about this great Scottish rebel? In History Hit’s new documentary, Rebels: William Wallace, Professor Michael Livingstone travels the length and breadth of the UK on a quest to find out more about the man behind the legend.

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An enigma, a minor nobleman

For a figure so central to Scottish history, William Wallace’s early life is an enigma. He doesn’t appear in the historical record until 1296, when he bursts onto the scene as a rebel leader. This lack of information has allowed myth and legend to rush in and fill the void. Much of the story we think we know comes from a 15th-century poem, The Wallace, written by a poet known as Blind Harry, nearly 200 years after Wallace’s death.

However, as Michael discovers, if you know where to look, clues to the real man do exist. Sources suggest his father was named Alan Wallace, which would mean William was a Lowlander, not a Highlander, indicating he was a minor nobleman – a far cry from the village commoner portrayed in the film ‘Braveheart’.

The spark of rebellion

In the late 13th century, a royal succession crisis gripped Scotland, leaving it on the brink of civil war. When King Edward I of England was invited to settle the matter, he used the opportunity to install a puppet king, John Balliol, and effectively seize control of Scotland. Edward’s invading army forced the Scottish nobles to swear oaths of fealty to him after the Battle of Dunbar, yet William Wallace, as a lesser nobleman, was untouched by these political manoeuvres – a freedom that would prove crucial.

Professor Michael Livingstone with an original Oath of Fealty to Edward I.

Image Credit: National Records Office / History Hit

Believing the problem to be over, Edward left Scotland in September 1296, appointing two Englishmen, John de Warenney and Hugh de Cressingham, as guardian and treasurer of Scotland respectively. Edward removed the Scottish crown jewels to Westminster, and kept leading Scottish nobles in captivity. But Scotland remained a simmering pot of unrest and when Edward allowed his men to exploit the common people, it was the final straw for Wallace.

To find out more about the first steps of Wallace’s rebellion, Michael heads to Edinburgh, and talks to Dr Fiona Watson. They discuss how in May 1297, Wallace made his first move: a small, but powerful act of defiance at Lanark, where he and his men attacked and killed the English Sheriff. This seemingly minor incident was the first ripple in a wave of rebellion. Wallace wasn’t alone in his fight; pockets of revolt were flaring up across the country, most notably in the north under another rebel leader, Andrew Moray.

Stirling Bridge: The battle that changed everything

As the flames of rebellion burned brighter, Edward sailed to France to continue his wars on the continent, yet the English army marched north, determined to crush the Scots once and for all at Stirling, a strategic town often deemed the “key to Scotland.” Here, at a narrow bridge over the River Forth, the two forces would meet.

As Michael explains, “A battle is its ground. You can’t understand how a clash unfolds without understanding its terrain”. He explores the battlefield terrain with conflict archaeologist Professor Tony Pollard, discussing the various advantages and disadvantages each side had, and the importance of the Scottish spear.

On 11 September 1297, the English army, confident in their superior numbers and equipment, made a catastrophic mistake. Led by a non-military commander, they poured onto the narrow bridge, failing to see the deadly trap set by the Scots. Wallace and Moray’s spearmen waited patiently, then, with astonishing speed, pushed the English toward the river, unleashing carnage.

The Battle of Stirling Bridge was a stunning success for the Scots. Whilst Moray died from his battle wounds, the Scots’ victory propelled Wallace to fame, and he was soon knighted and appointed Guardian of Scotland – the rebel was now a ruler.

Site of the Battle of Stirling Bridge, showing the meandering River Forth which played a crucial role in the Scots’ victory. (The Wallace Monument can be seen in the background, atop the hill where the Scottish forces had gathered.

Image Credit: History Hit

The fall and a lasting legacy

However, Wallace’s triumph was short-lived. For King Edward, this was no longer a campaign for Scotland; it was a campaign against one man. Less than a year later, at the Battle of Falkirk, Wallace’s forces were crushed in a devastating defeat, a loss some historians attribute to him misapplying the very tactics that won at Stirling Bridge.

Though Wallace escaped the field alive, his spirit was broken. He resigned as Guardian and disappeared, likely to the Continent to seek aid from England’s enemies, until returning to Scotland in the early 1300s. In 1305, after relentless campaigning, Edward I declared he would pardon all Scottish lords who had opposed him – except for William Wallace. Soon after, on 5 August 1305 Wallace was captured near Glasgow and taken to Westminster for a show trial.

Wallace was accused of treason, a charge he denied, stating that he owed no allegiance to a foreign king. He was also accused of murdering monks and women, a charge which today would be classed as war crimes. Wallace vehemently denied this too, but was found guilty and, on 23 August 1305, sentenced to a horrific death, being hung, drawn and quartered.

Later in the programme, Michael heads to the National Archives to examine a document from the time, an exchequer roll detailing the cost of Wallace’s brutal execution. The document gives us a unique glimpse into the English perception of Wallace, who they believed wanted to make himself King of Scots.

Professor Michael Livingstone and Dr Jessica Nelson, Head of Collections at the National Archives, view an exchequer roll which describes details about William Wallace’s death.

Image Credit: National Archives / History Hit

While Wallace lost his fight and his life, his legacy did not die with him. His rebellion is now seen as the mid-point of the First War of Scottish Independence, and the seeds he planted inspired others, most notably Robert the Bruce, who learned from Wallace’s mistakes at Falkirk to achieve a decisive victory at Bannockburn.

Centuries later, Wallace’s memory lives on in statues, stories and in poetry from figures such as Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott. As Michael Livingstone notes, in his afterlife, Wallace “became a symbol for Scots’ pride, a figurehead around which people can organise even today”.

Join Michael Livingstone on a journey to find the real man behind the legend in Rebels: William Wallace.

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Was it a tragic accident? A desperate suicide? Or something far more sinister?

In this special episode of the Tudor True Crime mini-series on History Hit’s podcast, Not Just the Tudors, Professor Suzannah Lipscomb steps into the shadows to investigate one of the most enduring mysteries of the Elizabethan age. She is joined by historian Dr Joanne Paul to sift through the evidence and the gossip, exploring why Amy’s death was a scandal that could have brought down a queen.

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A marriage under scrutiny

Amy Dudley (née Robsart) had the unfortunate distinction of being the main obstacle to the most scandalous potential romance in Tudor England. Married to Robert Dudley since they were teenagers, the couple’s relationship had been a complex one. While some sources suggest it was a genuine love match, the marriage came with significant political and economic advantages.

However, as Joanne explains, with the arrival of Elizabeth I on the throne in 1558, everything changed. Robert Dudley became Elizabeth’s Master of the Horse, a position of unparalleled closeness, and the two were inseparable. Rumours began to fly across Europe that the queen was courting him, and that he might even become her king. But there was one problem: his wife.

Amy and Robert had spent a significant amount of time apart since the beginning of Elizabeth’s reign. After more than a decade of marriage, they also remained childless, a significant pressure in an era where producing a family heir was paramount. There was also one fragment of a rumour that she may have had breast cancer. Amy had even been seen by her servants as deeply unhappy, praying nightly to be “delivered from her troubles.” This adds a haunting layer of tragedy to the events that would follow.

The day of her death

The circumstances of Amy’s death are as strange as they are suspicious. On that fateful day, Amy rose early and insisted that all of her servants leave the house to attend a nearby fair. Despite their protests, she became angry and demanded that they all go, leaving her completely alone. When the servants returned, they found her dead.

A coroner’s inquest was immediately called, and while it concluded her death was an accident, the details of the report raise more questions than they answer. Joanne reveals how the report, only rediscovered in 2008, notes not just the broken neck, but also two head wounds, one of which was an astonishing two inches deep.

Why were these head injuries downplayed by the coroner, John Pudsey, as the potential cause of death? Could these injuries have been sustained from a fall? Or did something else happen before she went down the stairs? 

Adding to the mystery is the account of Robert Dudley’s servant, Thomas Blunt, who was sent to investigate the death. His letters to Dudley reveal a town alive with gossip, and a nervous maid, Mrs Picto, who, in a slip of the tongue, denied the possibility of murder or suicide, then immediately tried to take back her words, saying “If you so should gather I’m sorry I said so much”.

The Death of Amy Robsart, as imagined by Victorian artist William Frederick Yeames, 1877

Tragic accident, suicide or murder?

The podcast delves into the possibilities of a tragic accident, suicide or murder, and the powerful motives behind a potential cover-up.

Suicide in the 16th century was considered a mortal sin, a betrayal of God’s gift of life that would lead to the posthumous conviction and excommunication of the deceased. It was a shame so profound that it would disgrace an entire family. This gives a great incentive for the coroner’s jury to rule Amy’s death an accident, even if they suspected otherwise.

But what about murder? Joanne explains that while Amy’s death didn’t immediately lead to a marriage with the Queen, it did end up benefiting one of the most powerful men in England: William Cecil. Before news of Amy’s death had even reached London, Cecil was already spreading rumours that she would be killed. The Spanish ambassador himself seemed convinced of a conspiracy.

Cecil, a man with a political, calculating mind, feared the prospect of Elizabeth marrying Dudley – a man whose family had been executed for treason. Cecil stood to gain a great deal from Dudley’s downfall, and he famously swooped in after Amy’s death to “comfort” him, a move that would lead to a much closer relationship between the two.

As Joanne explains to Suzannah, when studying the Tudors, it helps to “follow the power”, later pointing out how “it all seems to work out for Cecil in a way that if he didn’t plan it, it looks like he did”.

Left: Robert Dudley, c. 1560; Right: Portrait of William Cecil, c. after 1570

Image Credit: Left: Attributed to Steven van der Meulen; Right: National Trust / Croft Castle. Both: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

So was it a strategic move by Cecil to disgrace Robert, preventing a potential marriage to the Queen, or something more? The evidence seems to point to a murder conspiracy, a possibility that was widely discussed in the courts of Europe at the time.

But how far can we go with the evidence towards a conclusion – and extrapolating from that evidence, where does Joanne herself, as a historian, end up if she had to make a judgement?

The death of Amy Dudley cuts to the very heart of power in the Tudor court. It reflects on Elizabeth’s choices, her relationship with those closest to her, and the dangers of a world where one person’s life could stand in the way of a powerful monarch’s desires. The mystery of what happened that day at Cumnor Place has never been solved, but the clues, the rumours, and the political machinations all paint a compelling and haunting picture.

Join Professor Suzannah Lipscomb and Dr Joanne Paul as they unravel one of the Tudor period’s greatest mysteries in Not Just the Tudors’ Tudor True Crime: Murder of Amy Dudley.

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Now, with exclusive access to this astonishing find, Tristan Hughes embarks on an investigation to uncover the hoard’s secrets. In History Hit’s new documentary, The Melsonby Hoard, he explores what this extraordinary discovery reveals about a part of ancient Britain often overshadowed by the South. From intricate chariot fittings and ornate horse harnesses to a mass of fused metalwork, this is a once-in-a-generation discovery that is rewriting the story of the Iron Age.

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A hoard that helps rewrite history

In December 2021, a metal detectorist made the discovery of a lifetime on the outskirts of Melsonby, Yorkshire. Buried in two separate deposits, this colossal hoard was filled with a diverse array of items: chariot parts, horse gear, spears, and even large bronze cauldrons. This wasn’t just a collection of objects; it was a snapshot of a moment in time, a ritual offering left behind just before the Roman conquest. And its existence is reshaping what archaeologists thought they knew about Iron Age Britain.

The find was made close to the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications, a major power centre in northern Britain during the late Iron Age. In the programme, Tristan meets with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University, who explains that Stanwick was likely the key power centre for the Brigantes, a confederacy of peoples mentioned in Roman histories.

Tristan Hughes discusses the Melsonby Hoard with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University

Image Credit: History Hit

The sheer quantity and quality of the Melsonby artefacts suggest a level of wealth and sophistication previously thought to be exclusive to the south of England – proving that northern Britain was home to equally powerful and well-connected societies, with long-distance trade networks stretching as far as the Mediterranean.

A deliberate act

Why would someone bury such a staggering collection of objects? As Professor Moore reveals, the hoards were deliberately placed in two separate trenches, with many objects intentionally broken and even smashed with boulders. This wasn’t a hidden stash meant to be recovered later; it was a symbolic act, a ritual deposit.

The absence of any personal adornments or human remains makes this find particularly unique. Instead, the hoard contains ceremonial feasting items, like cauldrons, and military gear. Among the most exciting finds are iron tyres from four-wheeled wagons, the first indication that these types of vehicles were used in Britain. These objects weren’t all owned by a single person; instead, they represent a communal offering, a powerful statement of wealth and unity.

The dating of the hoard – to the early 1st century AD, just before the Roman arrival – suggests it may be related to the period before the reign of the powerful Queen Cartimandua. Professor Moore explains that it’s possible the hoard is connected to another, equally powerful female ruler, offering a tantalising new layer to our understanding of Iron Age society, and how, as he explains, “female rulers were probably quite common”.

The mysteries of the ‘block’

The Melsonby hoard includes what archaeologists call “the block” – a 250kg mass of Iron Age metalwork. Tristan meets Dr Emily Williams, an archaeological conservator at Durham University, who explains how this unique find was carefully excavated and is now undergoing vital conservation work.

The ‘Block’ – part of the Melsonby Hoard

A CT scan of the block has revealed more secrets, showing that it contains many of the same types of objects as the main deposit, including spears. Intriguingly, it’s also believed to contain Roman pilums – spears. The team hopes to keep the block intact, rather than dismantling it, preserving its secrets for future generations to study.

A game-changer on a cliff edge

Dr Keith Emerick, an Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England, describes the Melsonby hoard as “spectacular and unusual,” and “a game-changer” for our understanding of the Iron Age. The sheer scale and research potential of the find is unlike anything he has ever seen.

Tristan Hughes with Dr Keith Emerick, Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England inspect some of the Melsonby Hoard

However, the fate of the Melsonby Hoard hangs in the balance.

Tristan visits the Yorkshire Museum, where a small fraction of the hoard is on display for the first time. Emily North, Curator of Archaeology at the museum explains how the museum is currently undertaking a monumental fundraising effort to acquire the entire hoard for the nation. If successful, the hoard will become the property of the people of Yorkshire and Britain forever, ensuring it remains a single collection for vital conservation and research. Without these funds, there is a risk that individual pieces could be sold off to private collectors, scattering the collection and its secrets.

“Legally it’s treasure, but it’s a real treasure in terms of the secrets that it holds” explains Emily. As Tristan notes, this incredible discovery is reshaping our understanding of the Iron Age, and it’s vital that it can be kept together so that its story – the story of a buried kingdom and a lost people – can be told in full.

Join Tristan Hughes in a special documentary as he gets up close with this unprecedented discovery and uncovers the full story of The Melsonby Hoard.

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The answer lay not on the roads, which were little more than rutted tracks, but on the water.

In Industrial Revolution: Canal Mania, Dan Snow embarks on a journey across England and Wales to explore the extraordinary story of Britain’s canals, revealing how a small fleet of barges and a network of man-made rivers changed the world. He’ll stop at several of the incredible engineering projects managed by the Canal & River Trust, the organisation keeping these historic routes alive today. From staircases of locks to waterways in the sky, and even a marvel of Victorian engineering that lifted boats from one river to another, this is the big history of how little boats put a nation on the move.

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The problem of The Potteries

In the 1760s, British industry was thriving. No one exemplified this better than Josiah Wedgwood, the entrepreneurial pioneer who revolutionised the ceramics industry in the West Midlands, a region known as ‘The Potteries’. Wedgwood wasn’t just a brilliant potter; he was a marketing genius, embracing new chemistry to create beautiful glazes and colours while pioneering innovative sales techniques like catalogues and money-back guarantees. He grew enormously wealthy, but his success exposed a critical weakness in his operations: transport.

Wedgwood’s factories needed a steady supply of heavy raw materials like clay and coal. More importantly, he needed a reliable way to get his finished pottery to market without it being smashed to pieces on the backs of slow, jolting pack-horses. When he heard that the Duke of Bridgewater had just built a canal that slashed the price of coal in Manchester by 50%, he knew he had to act. He was not about to lose the capitalist arms race.

Wedgwood envisioned a canal that would connect his Stoke-on-Trent factories to the world, linking the River Trent to the River Mersey and the bustling Port of Liverpool. He knew he could reach the local market, but a canal would allow him to reach consumers across Britain and even export his goods to the world. On 26 July 1766, his vision began to take shape outside his famous Etruria factory, igniting a national obsession that would become known as ‘Canal-Mania.’

Canal boat near the site of Josiah Wedgwood’s Etruria factory.

Image Credit: History Hit

The human cost of a revolution

The construction of these waterways (known as ‘navigations’) was a monumental feat, requiring armies of labourers (‘navvies’) who moved across the country, living in temporary tented cities as they dug out thousands of miles of canal by hand. Dan learns from Canal & River Trust Heritage Adviser Mark Somerfield how the towpath itself was simply a pile of all the earth and rock that had been manually excavated from the waterway. The work was brutal and backbreaking, and many navvies died in their thirties and forties, worn out by their tireless efforts.

Yet, nothing could stand in their way. Not even a massive hill. Instead of going around, they dug right through it, creating vast tunnels with gunpowder. Dan ventures through one of these 19th-century tunnels, a testament to the sheer determination of the men who built them.

From land to water: a living legacy

With the canals, industry was no longer confined to the cities where it was born. Clay from the south coast of England, a vital ingredient for the popular white pottery, could now be shipped around the country by sea and then up the canal network to Stoke-on-Trent. The industry grew exponentially, exporting goods all over the globe, with companies like Burley Pottery sending their wares to America.

The programme highlights the incredible engineering that made this possible, from the Stoke Bruerne locks in Northamptonshire, which acted like a flight of stairs for boats, to the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct in Wales, an iron-clad river in the sky and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Completed in 1805, this graceful aqueduct was a dramatic solution to getting a canal across a deep river valley, and it’s still in use today.

The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, an iron-clad stream in the sky over the River Dee in Wales, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Image Credit: History Hit

Dan explores the aqueduct’s ancient iron trough, built by master engineers like Thomas Telford and William Jessop, and learns how the Canal & River Trust is working to preserve these unique waterways for future generations. As Mark Abraham, one of the Trust’s heritage advisers, poignantly states, “Don’t let them crumble, because once they’re gone, they’re gone.”

Mark Abraham, one of the Canal & River Trust’s Heritage Advisers and Dan Snow explore the temporarily de-watered Pontcysyllte Aqueduct to check for any problems for a future renovation.

Image Credit: Canal & River Trust / History Hit

The final challenge

By 1830, Britain’s canal system had expanded to over 4,000 miles, creating a network of ‘super-highways’ that shortened journey times and fuelled the nation’s economic engine. But in the mid-19th century, a new technology arrived that would change everything: the steam locomotive. Railways began to criss-cross Britain, offering a faster alternative to water transport.

However, while trains were quicker, they couldn’t carry anything close to the weights of a canal barge. Waterways remained the most efficient route for heavy freight, putting pressure on them to find even shorter routes.

Dan ends his journey at the northern end of the Trent & Mersey, where the canals met their final great challenge. The solution was a monumental feat of Victorian engineering: the Anderton Boat Lift. Nicknamed the ‘cathedral of the canals’, this vast piece of iron architecture was designed to raise and lower barges 50 feet, saving a full day of travel time. Dan gets a first-hand experience of the lift in action, a magnificent sight that proves the ingenuity of the people who made these waterways.

As Dan observes, these waterways are a “working slice of history,” a tangible reminder of the people who made them. They were the very arteries of a new world, igniting change that would spread across the globe.

The Anderton Boat Lift, known as the ‘cathedral of the canals’.

Image Credit: History Hit

Watch Industrial Revolution: Canal Mania and discover how Britain’s canals truly changed the world.

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In the second film in an exciting new partnership between History Hit and one of the world’s oldest and finest public museums, the University of Oxford’s Ashmolean Museum, Professor Suzannah Lipscomb journeys behind the scenes to uncover the fascinating world of Mesopotamian demons. Guided by curator Dr Nancy Highcock, Suzannah explores how ancient people sought protection in a world where the supernatural was woven into the fabric of everyday life in The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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A world infused with the supernatural

Mesopotamia, meaning the land “between two rivers”, stretches across the Middle East in the historical region located in the fertile crescent between the Euphrates and the Tigres rivers (today it now largely encompasses modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey). It was home to many of the earliest civilizations, including the Assyrians. For these people, the line between the natural and supernatural was practically non-existent.

As Dr Highcock explains, “In Mesopotamia, the supernatural were all around us.” People believed malevolent demons and ghosts were ever-present, causing illnesses and other misfortunes, making it vital to keep one’s ancestors happy and ward of evil spirits. In such a volatile world, images held real power, and every doorway, window, and even the corner of a room was a potential entry point for evil forces.

To protect themselves and feel a sense of control, they created a remarkable array of objects to harness and control these forces. The programme begins with a powerful testament to this belief: a colossal relief of a protective spirit called an Abkalu. With the body of a man and the head of an eagle, this 9th-century BC relief once guarded a palace entrance. Suzannah and Dr Highcock examine the intricate details of the figure, which holds a sacred purifying tool in one hand, designed to ward off evil from the king’s throne room.

Dr Nancy Highcock (left) and Professor Suzannah Lipscombe (right) look at some of the Ancient Mesopotamian demons in the Ashmolean Museum’s collection.

Image Credit: History Hit

Harnessing demonic power

Protection wasn’t just for the elite. The programme offers a close look at smaller, more personal artefacts used by ordinary people, including a small clay head of a demon ‘Humbaba’. Dating from around 2,000 BC, this mask-like figure is recognisable from one of the oldest known works of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Suzannah learns this tiny clay head was likely used as a protective charm hung on a household doorway, a way for everyday people to contain the power and violence of the demon.

Next, Suzannah examines an amulet designed to protect women and children. The amulet depicts a female demon ‘Lamashtu’, who was blamed for infant deaths and miscarriages. As Dr Highcock reveals, the Mesopotamians believed they could fight fire with fire. By capturing the image of a demon, miniaturising it, and putting it on an amulet, they could harness its power against itself. 

Amulet depicting a terrifying female demon named Lamashtu.

Even the demons had their enemies. Suzannah is shown another finely carved amulet, this one depicting the wind god Pazuzu, a formidable monster with a powerful physique. Pazuzu was considered an antagonist to Lamashtu and was specifically used to fight off the child-murdering demon.

The amulet, inscribed in the first person (“I am Pazuzu…”), speaks to a culture where an image wasn’t just a representation; it was imbued with the power of the being itself. The inscription may have even been read aloud during critical moments, such as childbirth, to invoke the demon’s protective power.

Divine dogs and a battle for control

With the constant battle between supernatural forces, humans sought to align themselves with protective beings to gain a sense of control. The programme features another fascinating example of this practice: small clay dogs found at the ancient site of Kish. These dogs, buried at doorways or placed under thresholds, were given powerful names like “Destroyer of Life” and “Biter of the Enemy.” They were believed to actively ward off evil spirits, offering a tangible defence against an otherwise invisible threat.

These astonishing objects from The Ashmolean Museum’s collection offer a unique window into the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. They reveal a world where divine and demonic forces shaped daily life, and where people – from rulers to ordinary citizens – sought protection and peace in a volatile existence. Though these empires may have fallen long ago, through these enduring artefacts, their people and beliefs still speak to us today.

Join Professor Suzannah Lipscomb and Dr Nancy Highcock as they reveal the hidden, magical world of Mesopotamian demons in the new episode of The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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In the latest episode of History Hit’s “Royal Sex” podcast mini-series, Dr Kate Lister is joined by renowned archaeologist and Egyptologist Dr Sarah Parcak to explore why. Prepare to challenge long-held myths and uncover the fascinating realities of one of history’s most powerful and controversial female rulers.

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A strategic mind beyond her years

When people think of Egypt, two things often come to mind: Cleopatra and pyramids. Yet, as Dr Sarah Parcak reveals, understanding Cleopatra’s true brilliance requires looking beyond popular imagery. Dr Parcak explains that Cleopatra “fully understood who she was and the moment Egypt was in when the Romans invaded… and she knew what she had to do to make Egypt’s memory survive”. This last ruler of Ancient Egypt enacted a multi-thousand-year plan for her nation’s legacy, and “she nailed it”.

Cleopatra was no mere seductress; she was an extraordinary politician, exceptionally intelligent, and fluent in as many as 8 or 9 languages (indeed she was the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language). Deeply versed in mathematics and philosophy, her “piercing intelligence” and extraordinary presence allowed her to command conversations on complex subjects. 

In the podcast you’ll discover how Cleopatra harnessed not just her intellect, but also her understanding of sexuality and fertility, deeply connected to Egyptian religion, to consolidate her immense power.

The unlikely path to Pharaoh

Was Cleopatra destined to be Pharaoh? Not necessarily – the throne was expected to pass to one of her brothers. However, even at a young age, Cleopatra displayed an “extraordinary aptitude and intelligence” says Dr Parcak, demonstrating a finesse for politics that her father, Ptolemy XII recognised and nurtured. Her experience in Rome as a child, strategically arranged by her father, also proved crucial for navigating international power dynamics and maintaining Egypt’s independence later in life.

Eventually, she was crowned co-regent with her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Following a civil war that erupted from their falling-out, he died in the Battle of the Nile. She later co-ruled with her other brother Ptolemy XIV, who subsequently died under mysterious circumstances. Ultimately, her sheer force of will ensured she effectively reigned alone.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

Debunking myths

Cleopatra is inextricably linked to the myth of sex, particularly with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Yet, the podcast debunks many assumptions. You’ll hear why Cleopatra was almost certainly a virgin before meeting Caesar, despite rampant rumours.

Her famously dramatic encounter with Julius Caesar, far from a mere seduction, was a strategic unveiling and, according to Dr Parcak, a profound “meeting of minds” between two brilliant political strategists. Their relationship quickly deepened, leading to love and the birth of their son. This “stunning, brilliant, younger woman” who could converse with him on every subject captivated Caesar, playing to his ego and cementing an alliance beneficial to Rome. 

The Roman reaction to Cleopatra’s presence in Rome was mixed; some branded her a “whore”, while others were utterly captivated, inspiring an explosion in the cult of Isis. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra swiftly returned to Egypt, later initiating her famous relationship with Mark Antony. Though often portrayed as a wild fling, their bond was enduring and resulted in three children. Dr Parcak stresses that Cleopatra had very few documented lovers, challenging the notion of promiscuity perpetuated by Roman propaganda, which conveniently targeted this brazen, powerful woman.

The Death of Cleopatra by Jean-André Rixens.

Image Credit: Public Domain

Tragedy and enduring legacy

In the podcast, Dr Parcak explains how Cleopatra’s reign faced immense challenges, including widespread drought and famine (as well as from surprising sources) that may have influenced the lead-up to crucial battles such as the Battle of Actium. When Rome inevitably sought to absorb Egypt, and after Mark Antony’s death, Cleopatra made her ultimate, iconic choice, avoiding public humiliation by Octavian in Roman triumph.

Her death, often depicted as an asp bite, was likely a swift, self-administered poison – a decision reflecting her innate understanding of her image and how it would secure Egypt’s lasting memory as Rome absorbed her kingdom.

The podcast explores how, like other powerful queens including Catherine the Great and Marie Antoinette, Cleopatra became a victim of misogynistic narratives, her power often sexualised to discredit her. Yet, Dr Parcak argues Cleopatra deliberately curated her image, using her appearance not for promiscuity, but to embody Egypt’s power and continuity.

Join Dr Kate Lister and Dr Sarah Parcak on Royal Sex: Cleopatra to navigate the intricate world of rumour, power, and passion that defined one of history’s most compelling rulers to uncover the true legacy of Cleopatra.

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In History Hit’s new documentary, Power House: The Medieval Tower of London, Dan Snow goes beyond the well-known history to explore a time of immense change for the Tower in the 13th century. He uncovers how this Norman citadel was transformed into a magnificent, medieval ‘super fortress’ and a royal residence fit for kings.

Join Dan as he pulls back the curtain on this iconic fortress to reveal its hidden history as a medieval powerhouse.

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Not just a prison

The Tower’s full name – His Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress of The Tower of London – offers a powerful clue to its dual purpose. It wasn’t just a military stronghold; it was a bustling royal court and residence, teeming with a diverse community of soldiers, servants, and monarchs. Dan delves into this hidden world, revealing how the Tower was, in every inch, a luxurious medieval palace.

Focusing on the 13th and 14th centuries, the programme explores the royal apartments built under Henry III and Edward I. These have been refurbished to reflect their original grandeur. Dan meets with Dr Charles Farris, the Public Historian for the History of the Monarchy, and the curator of a new palace exhibition containing several original items typical of palace life lent by the London Museum. Inside the restored Royal Apartments in St Thomas’s Tower, Dan is struck by their comfort and elegance, a contrast to the stark, cold image we tend to have of medieval castles.

Dr Farris explains how these rooms would have been lavishly decorated with intricate wall paintings, luxurious hangings, and fine furniture. The new exhibition, which uses original design notes from King Henry III to recreate the vibrant wall paintings that once adorned the queen’s chambers, brings this lost opulence to life. 

Dan Snow talks to Dr Charles Farris, Public Historian for the History of the Monarchy, in the refurbished Royal Apartments, St Thomas’s Tower, Tower of London.

Image Credit: History Hit

An expensive yet essential statement of power

The kings who invested so much in the Tower were not doing so on a whim. In an age of unrest, with the throne itself nearly lost during the reigns of Henry III and his son Edward I, the Tower’s fortifications were essential for security. But the palace served an equally important political purpose: projecting power

Kings like Edward I, often short on money, spent a fortune building such lavish palaces across their kingdom. As Dan learns, the lavish construction and opulent interiors were a deliberate message to visiting foreign dignitaries that England was a formidable, top-tier nation, and as Dr Farris says, “not a country that you mess with”.

Despite this massive investment, the Tower’s royal residents were rarely home. For instance, King Edward I spent a mere 53 days there over his entire 35-year reign, as a king’s rule depended on constant travel to command his vast territories and keep his nobles in check.

The rise of a medieval super fortress

The 13th century was a golden age of building for the Tower. It was constantly upgraded, transforming from a simple Norman stronghold into a multi-layered defensive masterpiece. Under King Henry III and particularly his son Edward I, the Tower was almost a permanent building site.

The documentary explores how Edward I, inspired by the massive castles he saw on crusade, initiated a monumental building project at the Tower. The military upgrade included a new layer of defensive outer walls, a state-of-the-art entrance featuring the Byward and St. Thomas’s Towers, and a permanent wet moat. Dan, guided by the Tower’s Curator of Historic Buildings, Alfred Hawkins, gets a close-up look at these engineering marvels. 

Alfred also shows Dan one of the most incredible surviving relics of this period: the original portcullis of the Byward Tower. Carbon-dated to the 13th century, it is believed to be the oldest working portcullis in England. 

Dan Snow talks to the Tower’s Curator of Historic Buildings, Alfred Hawkins and sees the original portcullis for the Byward Tower.

Image Credit: History Hit

The business of kings

The Tower’s newfound security also had a crucial economic purpose: housing the Royal Mint. Bringing the mint inside the fortress walls was a strategic move to consolidate royal power and control. Dan discovers how the Tower literally became a place for making money, and the relevance of the ‘Byward Angel’ painting in displaying the king’s ‘divine power’.

Ultimately, the Tower of London is a microcosm of medieval kingship, encapsulating within its ancient walls the monarch’s many roles: magnificent ruler, fierce warrior, pious leader, and family man.

Watch Power House: The Medieval Tower of London and see the Tower in a whole new light.

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A groundbreaking discovery is helping to shed light on that infamous event: shifting sands have revealed the broken remains of HMS Northumberland, once the pride of the fleet. This lost 17th century warship is a near-pristine time capsule, but is now exposed to the elements and rapidly deteriorating. Archaeologists are racing against time to salvage its secrets before they vanish forever.

Join Dan Snow in Shipwreck: HMS Northumberland as he investigates the ship’s construction, its pivotal role in the Royal Navy’s pursuit of the “perfect warship”, and the dramatic circumstances surrounding its ultimate loss. This is the compelling story of a natural disaster that shocked a nation and devastated the burgeoning Royal Navy.

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The rise of a naval power

The 17th century was a pivotal period for England’s naval ambitions. Once a marginal player, the nation was determined to challenge the maritime dominance of the Dutch and Spanish. This ambition fuelled a massive shipbuilding spree, investing heavily in a navy designed for power and global reach. Among these new vessels was HMS Northumberland, originally launched in 1679. A state-of-the-art, 70-gun warship, she represented a technological marvel – the pride of the Royal Navy.

However, the sea can be unpredictable and unforgiving, and even the strongest ships faced severe weather, navigational hazards, enemy action, and human error. HMS Northumberland’s story encapsulates the immense risks inherent in naval power projection during this era.

A night of catastrophe

On the fateful night of 26 November 1703, HMS Northumberland and other victorious Royal Navy warships were returning to British waters after the Battle of Vigo Bay, the first engagement in the Spanish Wars of Succession. Laden with the spoils of war, HMS Northumberland sailed up the English Channel, intending to pick up a specialist pilot to navigate the treacherous Thames Estuary.

With the weather rapidly deteriorating, the squadron anchored off the East Coast of Kent. As night fell, a building gale escalated into a fearsome storm. Despite desperate efforts, ships were battered, torn from their moorings, smashed against the treacherous Goodwin Sands, and swallowed by the waves. In just one terrible night, 14 ships were lost, a significant portion of the Royal Navy’s losses over an entire decade of war. For centuries, these wrecks lay hidden, until recent shifting currents began to reveal their secrets.

Forged in Chatham

Dan traces the story of HMS Northumberland back to its origins: Chatham Dockyard in Kent, the birthplace of the modern Royal Navy. Here, he meets maritime historian Nick Ball, who explains the monumental undertaking of building these warships – the most complex single objects constructed globally at that time. 

Nick also highlights the fierce arms race between England and the Dutch for trade dominance. England’s government recognised that national prosperity hinged on naval strength, prompting massive investment. This drive was further fuelled by a desire to redeem itself from one of the most humiliating defeats in its history: the Dutch Raid up the River Medway.

Dan Snow and Curator Simon Stephens from the National Maritime Museum inspect a 300 year old model of a similar class of ship to HMS Northumberland

Image Credit: National Maritime Museum / History Hit

A glimpse into the Stuart navy

Originally built in 1679, HMS Northumberland underwent a major refit, relaunching in 1702. The attack in the Battle of Vigo Bay was her first action since the refit. 

With no contemporary plans of HMS Northumberland surviving, Dan gains unique access to a 300-year-old model at the National Maritime Museum. He speaks with Curator Simon Stephens, who reveals how this remarkably detailed model provides an unprecedented representation of this class of ship.

Today, Britain boasts two iconic historic naval vessels – Henry VIII’s ‘Mary Rose‘ (1510) and Nelson’s ‘Victory‘ (1765) – but a crucial 250-year gap exists between them. HMS Northumberland, built halfway between these giants, acts as the missing link, offering a rare chance to complete our understanding of the Royal Navy’s evolution and the formidable Stuart navy.

Diving the wreck

What traces of the real HMS Northumberland remain after three centuries on the seabed? Dan receives a special invitation to join maritime archaeologist Dan Pascoe and his team as they dive the wreck on the Goodwin Sands. An oxygen-free environment has preserved the vessel and its contents for centuries, but shifting currents now pose an urgent threat. Exposed areas are rapidly degrading, prompting a race against time. 

Ropes visible when diving the wreck of HMS Northumberland

Image Credit: History Hit

Pascoe explains the team’s critical mission: to “excavate this site so they can expose parts of the site that haven’t been uncovered that will have pristine surfaces, and those surfaces will provide the details that will tell us so much more about the ship and the people that lived and worked on board”.

HMS Northumberland was a ship forged in an age of expanding empires, shaped by war and innovation, only to be brought down not by battle, but by the relentless power of the sea. Its discovery offers an unparalleled opportunity to unlock the secrets of the Stuart navy and the lives of those who sailed her.

Don’t miss Shipwreck: HMS Northumberland and witness the start of this extraordinary archaeological race against time to uncover the lost history of a ship that is the missing link in the story of the Royal Navy. What will its timbers reveal?

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In History Hit’s powerful new documentary, Fortress War – Liberation80 Jersey, Dan Snow travels to the island to explore the compelling history of its occupation and eventual liberation, meeting experts and survivors to uncover the profound challenges of the war years.

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An island abandoned

Jersey, a mere 9 miles by 5 miles, became the only part of Britain occupied by Nazi forces during World War Two. Following France’s surrender in 1940, and deemed indefensible by Britain, Winston Churchill made the difficult decision to demilitarise Jersey. Thousands of islanders evacuated, while over 40,000 braced for the inevitable. 

Unaware of the demilitarisation, the Luftwaffe bombed Jersey and Guernsey on 28 June 1940, and by 1 July, the Germans arrived, transforming island life as the occupation began. By the end of the first year, over 10,000 German troops were stationed on Jersey. Hitler wanted to use the Channel Islands as a launchpad to invade Britain, but what did life become for those who stayed?

German World War Two tower that remains on Jersey

Image Credit: History Hit

Compliance and resistance under Nazi rule

In the documentary, Dan heads to the Jersey Museum to meet Occupation Historian Lucy Layton, Curator for Jersey Heritage, to learn more about the immediate impact of German rule.

Lucy explains some of the measures islanders were forced to adapt to in their new reality, including the use of German currency and timezones, the banning of radios unless German-controlled, and only German propaganda films being shown in cinemas. Every resident had to carry an identity card, with Jewish islanders’ cards stamped with a red ‘J’ – some were even deported to concentration camps.

Despite severe penalties, acts of sabotage and resistance emerged, with some islanders courageously hiding escaped slave labourers and prisoners of war. Lucy reveals poignant stories of active defiance, highlighting courageous individuals like Dorothea Le Brocq, who sheltered a Jewish woman at immense personal risk. Defiance came at a terrible cost, with over 1,300 islanders imprisoned.  

Dan also learns from Lucy about the tragic fate of Louisa Gould, arrested for hiding a Russian POW and possessing an illegal radio, serving as a powerful reminder of her sacrifice. 

Hitler’s Fortress: The Atlantic Wall on British soil

Fearing a British attempt to retake the Channel Islands, on 20 October 1941, Hitler ordered them to be transformed into an impregnable fortress. Dan talks to historian Michael Billings and learns more about Organisation Todt (OT), which brought in 16,000 forced labourers from across Europe and North Africa. They were housed them in brutal camps where many perished building colossal fortifications for Hitler’s Atlantic Wall, including massive bunkers and gun batteries that still scar Jersey’s landscape today.

In the programme, Dan explores one of the largest structures carved out by these workers: the Jersey War Tunnels, a subterranean network over 1 km long.

Dan Snow on top of German fortification in Jersey, built as part of Hitler’s ‘Atlantic Wall’ fortifications.

Image Credit: History Hit

The long wait for liberation

The war’s progression brought increasing hardship. Discover how a German crisis in Iran led to the deportation of all non island-born British nationals to German internment camps. Around 650 British nationals were sent to Wurzach internment camp in southern Germany. Dan meets Lola Garvin, who was a baby when her family was deported, hearing her powerful testimony about what life was like for them.

Following D-Day in June 1944, hope swelled, but the Allies chose not to divert forces to liberate the Channel Islands and German control persisted. Supplies dwindled, leading to extreme food and fuel shortages.

The Germans, however, continued work on their ‘impregnable fortress’. In the programme, Dan visits St Catherine’s Bunker with World War Two historian Phil Marrett, exploring one of the 17 large tunnels on Jersey and gaining special access to the tunnel’s rear, revealing machine-gun posts and even graffiti left by its builders.

After Germany’s eventual surrender, finally, on 9 May 1945 British Force 135 arrived and the Germans officially surrendered Jersey, ending five long years of occupation. Dan hears about the immense clean-up operation that followed, as the island sought to erase the physical remnants of Nazi rule whilst celebrating their liberation – celebrations that continue annually, 80 years later.

Dan Snow watches the Liberation Day parade in Jersey, 2025 – 80 years after the liberation.

Image Credit: History Hit

Watch “Fortress War – Liberation80 Jersey” to witness the compelling story of courage, hardship, and ultimately, liberation, from this unique chapter of World War Two.

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In The Cutting Edge: Testing the Stone Age, History Hit visits Kent State University in Ohio, home to one of the world’s leading experimental archaeology laboratories. Here, Dr Metin Eren and Dr Michelle Bebber are scientifically exploring our distant past, meticulously recreating, experimenting with, and testing the technology of our ancient ancestors. 

Join them for a fascinating ‘cutting-edge’ experiment that investigates a vital technological development: the use and creation of tools, particularly those designed for cutting. They put the Stone Age to the test, exploring a key question: did early hominins use naturally occurring sharp rocks before they began to make their own tools?  

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The power of experimental archaeology

Using tools to cut was a pivotal step in human evolution, enabling butchering and even the beginnings of combining materials. In the past, it was assumed there was a ‘eureka moment’ where cutting tools were always deliberately made, rather than simply found in the landscape.  But is this right?  

“We can’t observe ancient people, and we can’t observe how they used the artefacts that we dig-up millions of years later,” explains Metin. “What we do is we recreate their technology, and then we do all sorts of experiments to figure out how it worked. That’s the only way we can kind of bring this stuff back to life.”

Michelle adds that this meticulous replication helps us “understand the behavioural processes that resulted in these tools,” even though we can never access the ancient mind. 

Unveiling Oldowan tools

Metin and Michelle begin by crafting replicas of Oldowan tools – some of the earliest known stone tools discovered in sites across Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Kenya. These seemingly simple tools were designed for key evolutionary steps, primarily hammering, and most importantly, cutting.

Recognising and utilising a sharp object as a tool launched humans onto a technological trajectory that continues to this day. As Metin points out “by separating out materials, we would have access to nutrients that would build up our hominin brain”. This pivotal development ultimately led to spears, knives, hunting, and the continuous innovation we see today.

Diversity of forms of recreated Stone Age tools

Image Credit: History Hit

A tapestry of innovation

The Stone Age, spanning millions of years, saw a huge diversity of tool forms, representing varied and unique solutions to survival problems. Metin explains that this period marked “the birth of our high intelligence”.

Beyond efficiency, this variety indicates our ancestors developing an appreciation for tools that were also aesthetically pleasing. As Michelle says, the constant tweaking and refinement of these tools over hundreds of thousands of years “stimulated a lot of the aesthetic and artistic expression we see later in our species”. This full arsenal allowed our species to colonise the globe, demonstrating that diversity in technological, cultural, and behavioural adaptations is our species’ greatest strength.

A hands-on approach

The experimental archaeology lab offers a unique advantage. As Metin notes, while priceless museum artefacts are untouchable, “What we do here is we recreate those artefacts and we can make as many as we need and then we test the hell out of them.”

Michelle and Metin use these replica cutting tools to test their groundbreaking theory: were early tools deliberately manufactured, or did our ancestors simply discover and utilise naturally occurring sharp rocks? Helping them is Emma Finestone of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, an expert in early tool creation who works in the field in Kenya, finding our ancestors’ early tools dating back over 1.7 million years.

Their controlled cutting tests compare the effectiveness of naturally sharp rocks with hominin-produced stone flakes, with some surprising results. The documentary also examines the much later, highly advanced Clovis culture tools discovered in Ohio, representing the zenith of stone technology from over 10,000 years ago.

Through their innovative scientific techniques, Metin and Michelle are shedding exciting new light on the fundamental question of how and when humanity took its first key steps on its extraordinary journey.

Join us in The Cutting Edge: Testing the Stone Age for a thought-provoking investigation that reveals the extraordinary advances of the longest era of our past, the Stone Age.

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